The Armies of Ancient Persia

The Sassanians

Kaveh Farrokh

• Publisher: Pen & Sword Military
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9781848848450
• eBook ISBN: 9781473883185
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

Throughout most of the classical period, Persia was one of the great superpowers, placing a limit on the expansion of Western powers. It was the most formidable rival to the Roman empire for centuries, until Persia, by then under the Sassanians, was overwhelmed by the Islamic conquests in the seventh century AD. Yet, the armies of ancient Persia have received relatively little detailed attention, certainly in comparison to those of Rome. This work is the firsst of three volumes that will form the most comprehensive study of ancient Persian armies available.The Sassanians, the native Iranian dynasty that ousted their Parthian overlords in AD 226, developed a highly sophisticated army that was able for centuries to hold off all comers. They continued the Parthians famous winning combination of swift horse archers with heavily-armored cataphract cavalry, also making much use of war elephants, but Kaveh Farrokh interestingly demonstrates that their oft-maligned infantry has been much underestimated.The author, born in Athens, Greece, and expert in ancient Persian languages and military history, has been researching the military history and technology of Persia for a quarter of a century. He draws on the latest research and new archaeological evidence, focusing on the organization, equipment and tactics of the armies that dominated the ancient Middle East for so long.

Chapter 1

Martial Ardour, Origins and Missions of the Spah

The shahanshah (king of kings) was the supreme leader of the Sassanian spah (military, or armed forces). Under the shahanshah served an efficient hierarchical bureaucratic machine that was composed of military, civilians and religious officials. Greatrex cites the importance of the noble clans (traditionally seven in number) whose power could at times rival that of the shahanshah.1 Greatrex further avers that the Sassanian political-military apparatus ran most efficiently when a strong king was at the helm.2

This chapter will briefly sketch the factors that led to the rise of the spah as one of the military superpowers of its day. Iranian military tradition identifies four general factors as having been essential in the formation of the spah. Jalali categorizes these as historical, political, economic and socio-cultural (the latter overlapping with geographical and religious factors as well).3 Before this discussion a brief overview is provided concerning the martial ardour of the warriors of the spah.

Roman Sources: The Martial Ardour of the Spah

The Sassanian spah was a formidable military machine during the Sassanian Empire’s 427-year existence (224–651 CE). Sassanian martial ardour was no less fervent than that of the Romans, and the soldiers of both empires drew upon the military talents of each other. Thanks in large part to the efforts of Western scholarship and Iranian military historians much information has been uncovered regarding the formidable nature of the spah and its warriors. The resilience of the Sassanian military machine has been attested by the soldier-historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who served in the Roman armies that fought against the spah in the fourth century CE. As noted by Marcellinus: ‘In military system and discipline, by continual exercises in the business of the camp . . . they [Sassanians] have become formidable even to the greatest armies . . . so brave is it [the spah] and so skilful in all warlike exercises, that it would be invincible were it not continually weakened by civil and by foreign wars.’4

The Expositio totius mundi et Gentium corroborates Ammianus by describing the (Sassanian) Persians as ‘brave in wars’.5 The martial ardour of the savaran elite cavalry was especially respected by Roman troops. Libanius wrote a detailed description of the savaran from Roman eyes in 365 CE, just two years after the defeat of Emperor Julian’s invasion of the Sassanian Empire:

[A] cloud of dust rising in the distance, such as would be made by [Sassanian] cavalry. . . made them turn to flee . . . when a squadron, and that only a small one, showed itself, they prayed earth to swallow them up, preferring to suffer any fate than look a Persian in the face . . . the word ‘Persian’ put a stop to their [Roman troops] being troublesome, and everyone used to say ‘Here comes a Persian soldier!’ and they forthwith turned red in the face and jumped away . . . the Persian terror, growing in the course of long years had become so fixed in them that somebody said they even would have trembled at the Persians in a picture.6

Marcellinus also elucidates the military challenge posed by the spah when he comments that ‘many of our [Roman] armies having often been entirely destroyed by them’.7 These observations are notable as Rome was the military superpower of its day and was master of the Mediterranean and its lands as well as much of Western Europe. Contemporary Western military historians such as Howard-Johnston acknowledge the spah’s formidable nature by noting that ‘the Sassanian empire was, from the first, the military equal of the Roman empire, and second that, after a delay for mental adjustment, its parity was recognised and accepted by the Romans.’8

Historical Factors

As discussed in the introduction, a select number of Western historians and nonmilitary Iranologists now diverge from Iranian military historians with respect to historical factors and the spah. As noted in the introduction, the position of traditional Iranian military historiography (i.e. Shahbazi,9 Jalali,10 etc.) is that the Sassanian dynasty sought to revive the martial traditions and empire of the ancient Achaemenids. The traditional source of evidence for this viewpoint has often been sought in the classical sources. Western-based Iranian historians however, now argue that the Sassanians had no military memory of the Achaemenids. As noted in the introduction, Charles concurs with this view, arguing that the classical sources were simply propagandizing by identifying the Parthians and Sassanians as the heirs of the Achaemenid military tradition.

Iranian military history tradition also argues that the reason the Sassanians endeavoured to create a powerful military machine was to enable them to realize their dreams of a revived Persian empire.11 Readers are referred to the introduction chapter for further discussion of this topic.

Domestic Political Factors

The spah also played an important role in the empire’s domestic politics, namely to preserve and protect the Sassanian monarchy. This was a complex political issue lasting to the final days of the dynasty, as potential rivals to the throne could arise anywhere from the western Iranian highlands to the interior of Iran and the east (notably Khorasan and Saka-istan).12 Specifically this region comprised an ‘inner arc’ of the provinces of Pars (the Sassanian homeland), Maha (Media), and Parthia, which surround the largely uninhabited and arid Iranian interior. The ‘highland’ region was composed of the northwestern and northeastern marches of the empire. The northwestern marches consisted of Aturpatekan (ancient Media Atropatene, corresponding to Azerbaijan province in Iran’s northwest) as well as Albania (modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan) and Armenia in the Caucasus. The northeastern marches were essentially those regions facing the Central Asian region, roughly modern-day Khorasan (in Iran), with the major military base at Merv in modern-day Turkmenistan. The highlands and the inner arc were generally settled by aristocratic military family groups under the leadership of the vuzurgan (modern Persian buzurgan; great clans/families/grand dignitaries). The Sassanian dynasty had had the support of these vuzurgan in its ascension to power, both in the overthrow of the Parthian dynasty and the defeat of Roman thrusts into the Iranian realms.

Despite having supported the Sassanians against the Parthian dynasty, the formidable vuzurgan of the predominantly Parthian clans retained the military potential of rebelling against the Sassanian throne. Put simply, the Parthian vuzurgan could challenge the political supremacy of the Sassanians by military means, as these provided the spah with its best-trained and equipped elite savaran cavalry. The Parthian clans certainly contributed to the collective defence of the ‘Eiran-Shahr’ (Sassanian Empire) and were fully involved in the military expansion of the realm; nevertheless, they exercised a great deal of autonomy from Ctesiphon, a legacy of the decentralized policies of the former Parthian dynasty. Bavzani has noted in this regard that the Sassanians differed in at least two ways from their Parthian and Achaemenid predecessors in that they ‘had a powerful central government and declared an official state religion’.13

Professor Pourshariati has noted the potential political rivalry between the Parthian and Sassanian aristocratic houses of Iran and argues that this rivalry, which had existed since the early days of the Sassanian dynasty, contributed to the undermining of the spah on the eve of the Arabo-Islamic invasions in 637–651 CE. There is evidence that Parthian political animosity toward the Sassanians also existed in the cultural sphere. The Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, for example, has examined a Parthian-Pahlavi inscription of two Parthian youths who mock the founder of the Sassanian dynasty, Ardashir I Babakan, by saying that he rides a donkey instead of a horse.14 Parthian resentment at being overthrown was perceived as a military threat by the Sassanians, who viewed a powerful spah as essential for protecting against possible rebellions and attempted coups d’etat.15

A final point, while beyond the scope of this text, pertains to the ethnic origins of the Sassanian dynasty. The Sassanians are often referred to as a ‘Persian’ dynasty, which is strictly true if we consider their geographical origins in Persis. But it is quite possible that the Sassanians were of wider Iranian origin. Tabari mentions a letter written by the Parthian king Ardavan V in which he referred to Ardashir I as a Kurd ‘who was brought up in the tents of the Kurds’.16 According to Zarrinkub, Ardashir was a ‘Kurd . . . raised by the Shaban’.17 These highland connections may partly explain why Ardashir was able to recruit excellent Mede and Kurdish fighters into the spah. This may have been one of those military factors which proved significant in repelling the Roman invasion of the newly established Sassanian Empire in 233 CE.

Foreign Policy: Territorial Expansion, Defence of the Eiran-Shahr, or Both?

The Sassanians were determined to defend those lands they identified as belonging to Iran, including those territories located outside of modern Iran proper. At the same time, such policies led to expansionist ambitions, which led to the spah’s determined efforts towards improving their defensive as well as offensive capabilities. This meant that the technology of warfare played a crucial role in the spah’s (and, indeed, the Sassanian Empire’s) history. As noted by Masia, Sassanian imperial ambitions resulted in constant military contacts and technological exchanges with Rome, Armenia and various other polities of the Caucasus and Central Asia.18

Like the Parthians before them, the Sassanians made Ctesiphon (in Mesopotamia) their capital and fought to extend their sway into Albania (modern Republic of Azerbaijan), Iberia (modern Republic of Georgia), Armenia and eastern Anatolia (i.e. the Cappadocia-Pontus regions). Their expansionist efforts often brought them into conflict with the Romans (and, later, the Byzantines), who coveted those same lands. The Sassanians were also active on their northeastern (i.e. Central Asian) frontiers. After the subjugation of the Kushans in the Ardashir I-Shapur I era (mid-third century CE), the spah’s strategy for Central Asia consisted mainly of repelling nomadic incursions by Chionite, Hephtalite-Hun, and Turkic invaders. The spah was to achieve spectacular expansion into Central Asia following the campaigns of Bahram Chobin (588 CE) and Smbat Bagrationi (607–617 CE). In summary, the Sassanians had no choice but to ensure that the spah was as efficient and powerful as possible to: (1) repel Roman attempts to conquer Sassanian territory; (2) attempt expansion into Roman-held territories; and (3) defend the Central Asian frontier and expand further into that region whenever strategic-military circumstances were favourable for doing so. This would also help explain the aggressive military posture that was to be adopted by the spah well up to the last days of the dynasty.19

As the Sassanian dynasty solidified its rule and established its military power, the spah was obliged to factor in the defence of strategic fortress-cities and land routes against its Romano-Byzantine and Central Asian rivals. Two major metropolitan centres that became critical strategic assets were Nisibis (on the modernday Turkish-Syrian border) and Merv (in present-day Turkmenistan). Separated by a distance of approximately 1,800km, these cities were critical to the defence of the realm: Merv was a bulwark against invasion from Central Asia and Nisibis anchored the defence of the empire’s western marches against the Romano-Byzantines.

Economic Factors

The spah was critical to the economic welfare of the empire. A strong military machine would help deter attacks by aggressive foes such as the Romano-Byzantines, Khazars, Central Asian nomads and the Arabs. A successful invasion of imperial territory would devastate agriculture, and disrupt trade and industry. The capture and/or destruction of cities meant that conquered Iranian populations could be killed off, displaced or enslaved. These outcomes could also wreak havoc on the Sassanian economy. While the empire, like Rome, certainly had its share of diplomats, it was ultimately the Sassanian military that ensured the security and well-being of its economy and people.

The Iranian economic situation was dire in the early third century when the Sassanians seized the throne. The preceding Parthian dynasty had suffered a series of serious defeats by Roman armies with Ctesiphon having been sacked three times, in 116, 165 and 198 CE by Emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 CE), General Gaius Avidius Cassius (briefly emperor in 175) and Emperor Septemius Severus (r. 193–211) respectively. These defeats had inflicted severe economic blows upon the Parthian realm. In 198, for example, the forces of Septemius Severus had emptied much of Ctesiphon’s treasury, hauling its contents off to Rome and thereby inflicting a crushing blow to the Iranian economy. Put simply, Iranian (Parthian) military weaknesses had resulted in battlefield defeats against the Romans, leading to negative consequences for the economy.

The Sassanians realized th...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Acknowledgements
• Contents
• List of Plates
• List of Figures and Tables
• Introduction
• Historical Timeline of the Sassanian Empire
• 1. Martial Ardour, Origins and Missions of the Spah
• 2. Organization: Military Titles and Recruitment
• 3. Military Reforms of the Sixth Century CE
• 4. Military Training, Polo, the Hunt, and Military Music
• 5. Archery
• 6. The Savaran
• 7. Infantry, Auxiliary Contingents and Naval Forces
• 8. Preparations for War
• 9. Tactics and Strategies along the Roman and Caucasian Frontiers
• 10. Logistics and Support
• 11. Post-Battle Scenarios and War Diplomacy
• 12. The Spah in Central Asia: Warfare, Military Developments and Tactics
• 13. Military Architecture
• 14. Siege Operations
• 15. Sassanian Military Culture
• 16. Military Weaknesses of the Spah
• 17. The Fall of the Spah and the Empire
• 18. Post-Sassanian Resistance and Rebellion against the Caliphate
• 19. Legacy
• Maps
• Notes
• References
• Plate section