AMERICA

(The People & the History)

El Mouatamid Ben Rochd

• Publisher: Books on Demand
• Year: 2021
• Edition: 1
• eBook ISBN:
  9782322182626
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: World History
• Index: History

THIS BOOK is a brief summary of the history and culture of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ever since the "Reds"(Native Americans) crossed the Bering Strait, represented by one of their most famous leaders GERONIMO. The second chapter is about the advent of Christianity from Europe to America and the later mashrooming of different Protestant churches. Finally, the last chapter is about the Afro-Americans as represented by Rosa Parks, Black Panther Eldridge Cleaver and Black Muslim spokesman Malcolm X.

1. NATIVE AMERICANS: GERONIMO (1829-1909)

Peoples’ minds usually work by mythos (or ‘prejudice’ to put in less farfetched terms) about other individuals or other peoples. In the same logic the Indians are those ‘naked savages trying to capture a stage coach of White travelers to scalp and even burn them alive. Or, more peacefully those good dancers rocking their bodies around a post and worshipping Manito (i.e., The High Spirit) at the Allegheny Sacred Mount.

In fact, the so called ‘Red Indians’ were divided into several tribes with different degrees of savageness (and civilization), scattered from Canada in the North neighboring with the Eskimos, to the Southern continent of America. They are originally Asians who have crossed the Bering Strait some 30,000 years ago. The most sophisticated among them were the Mayas and the Aztecs notably.

The Mayas

The Mayas were Mesoamerican Indians occupying a nearly continuous territory in Southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Northern Belize. In the early 21st century some 70 Mayan languages were spoken by more than five million people, most of whom were bilingual in Spanish. Before the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Central America, the Maya possessed one of the greatest civilizations of the Western Hemisphere. They practiced agriculture, built great stone buildings and pyramid temples, worked gold and copper, and made use of a form of hieroglyphic writing that has now largely been deciphered.

The Apaches

The Apaches were North American Indians who, under leaders such as Victorio, Navajo Joe and Geronimo, are largely mentioned in the history of 19^th century America. Their name is probably derived from a Spanish transliteration of ápachu, i.e. “enemy” in Zuni.

Before Spanish colonization, Apache domain extended over parts of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas and in Mexico proper viz. Sonora. They may have migrated to the area from the far North. With the exception of the Navajo, all other Apache tribes originally lived in Western Canada.

Although the Apache eventually chose to adopt a nomadic way of life relying on horse transport, some among them were farmers living in Kansas up to 1700. With horses and guns, they developed guerrilla-style raiding. The remaining Apache were forced to retreat to the South and West.

Culturally, the Apache were divided into Eastern Apache, and Western Apache, and Northern and Southern Mogollon Apache. The Apache traditionally had no centralized tribal organization. Instead, the band was the primary political and military unit. After moving to the South-West, they lived on hunting, wild foods, farming, and raiding. They grew corn and other vegetables, and also hunted bison extensively. The Chiricahua Apache were the most nomadic and aggressive of the Apache West of the Rio Grande, raiding into Northern Mexico, Arizona, and New Mexico from their strongholds in the Dragoon Mountains. The Western Apache tribes, the Navajo, traded extensively with the Pueblo tribes.

Although they were fierce fighters, the Apache at first attempted to be friends of the Spanish and other Europeans. But in early 17^th century, however, Apache bands were raiding Spanish Catholic missions. The Spanish retaliated immediately following the revolt; many took shelter with the Navajo.

In 1858, a belligerent meeting at Apache Pass between the Americans and the Apache resulted in a peace that lasted until 1861. This was the beginning of 25 years of confrontation between U.S. military forces and the native peoples of the South-West. The causes of the conflict included the Apache dislike for reservation life and the development of gold, silver, and coal mining operations in the region supervised by corrupt White Officers.

Despite their use of swift horses and their knowledge of the terrain, the Apache were eventually defeated by the superior arms of American troops. The Navajo surrendered in 1865 and agreed to settle on a reservation in New Mexico. Other Apache groups ostensibly followed in the years 1871–73, but large numbers of warriors refused to yield their nomadic ways and accept permanent confinement. Thus, intermittent raids continued to be led by such Apache leaders as Geronimo, Navajo Joe and Victorio.

The last of the Apache wars ended in 1886 with the surrender of Geronimo and his few remaining followers. They were taken as prisoners of war in Florida, Alabama, and Oklahoma, after 27 years of war, they were put in State Reservations.

The Cherokees /‘terokiz/

Cherokee in the Iroquoian language means “people of different speech”. They were some 22,500 individuals in 1650, living on the Appalachian Mountains (Georgia, Tennessee, and Carolinas).

Traditional Cherokee life and culture greatly resembled that of the Creeks. The Cherokee nation was composed of a union of red i.e., war and white i.e., peace towns. The war chiefs of the red towns were under a supreme chief, while the white towns were under a peace chief. The peace towns had a temple for the sinners while the war ceremonies were conducted in the red towns.

The Cherokee had sophisticated skills in making stone knives, axes, and chisels. They wove baskets, made pottery, and cultivated corn, beans, and squash. They hunted deer, bear, and elk for meat and clothing. They dwelt in windowless log cabins, with one door and a smoke hole in the roof. Their towns consisted of 30 to 60 houses with a council house for general meetings in which a sacred fire burnt. An important religious day was held for the Green Corn Festival as first-fruits ceremony.

The European colonists attempted to colonize parts of the Cherokee territory which led to much bloodshed. During the French and Indian Wars (1754–63) the Cherokees allied with the English while the French allied with the Iroquoian tribes which were the Cherokee's traditional enemies. Indian Tribal economy in general was seriously disrupted by European actions such as gold searching and bison (game?) hunting. In 1773 the Creek Indians fell into the debt trap of the colonists and had to give up parts of their lands (notably Georgia) to the Europeans.

Likewise, in 1775 the Cherokees were forced by the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals to give away/sell (?) an important part of Kentucky to a European company. They further got themselves reeled into supporting the British crown and Red Tunics against American Minutemen, who were fighting for their Independence.

When the Cherokee and Creek warriors attacked frontier towns, their tribes suffered the gruesome retaliation of the Yankee militias as well as that of the regulars of the Southern colonies. Eventually, Cherokee power was broken, their crops and villages were ruthlessly burnt. They appealed for peace which they obtained at the price of the remains of their territory in Carolina in the year 1777. More rebellion led to more fierce wars and additional territory loss.

After 1800, the Cherokees became notable for their assimilation of American culture. They formed a government similar to that of the Whites and took up their methods of farming, weaving, and home building.

The Cherokee language was remarkably developed in 1821 by a Cherokee linguist who had served in the U.S. Army. He adopted the syllabary system of writing, in which each symbol represents a syllable. This helped the entire tribe to become literate in a relatively short time. A written constitution was adopted, and the Bible was translated into their language.

The Sioux /su: z/

The Sioux are North American Indians also called Dakota for some. The latter name means “allies” while Sioux means “enemies” in Old French. There were three main divisions of the Sioux calling themselves Dakota, Nakota, and Lakota, each comprising subdivisions. Western Sioux alone had seven main divisions among which, Blackfoot.

Before the middle of the 17^th century, they lived in the area around Lake Superior, where they gathered wild rice and beans, hunted deer and buffalo, and fished with canoes. Continual wars with their neighbours drove the Santee into Minnesota; the Teton and Yankton to the Great Plains of North and South Dakota where they ceased their agricultural activity and adopted the nomadic hunting of buffalo as one of the big games.

The Sioux shared many cultural characteristics with other Indian tribes. They lived in tepees. A man acquired his proper status by performing brave deeds in warfare, horses (unknown to the Indians until the arrival of the Spaniards!) and the number of scalps earned. Religious Spiritism was also closely linked to their life outlook and represented by paintings on their war shields to protect them from their enemies (it did not protect them from the Whiteman!). The Sioux danced (worshipped?) to the sun. The Sioux recognised four religious powers of the universe including the buffalo and the bear, which were supposed to protect their warriors. When killing a beast they would offer parts of it to their god. Catlin described them as honest people, owning horses, green prairies and having enough food to live on. Their accusation of being heavy drinkers was false. Wine was introduced to them by the Christians, one of whom was father Hemmepin.

The Mohicans

The Mohicans are/were Algonquian-speaking Indians near the Catskill Mountains in New York State. Their name means “wolf.” They were also known to the Dutch and the English as the River Indians. The Mohicans consisted of five major divisions governed by hereditary leading chiefs helped by elected counselors. They lived in strongholds of 20 to 30 houses, situated on hills and enclosed in villages situated between cornfields and woodland.

In 1664, they were forced by the Dutch to move from Albany, to Stockbridge, Massachusetts. They ‘sold’ their territory, and in 1736 were put into a mission/reservation to preserve their cultural identity. Other groups scattered and mixed with other brotherly Indian tribes notably in the Wisconsin. The American novelist James F. Cooper wrote about the decline of the Mohican culture in his book The Last of the Mohicans (1826). (Mohican hair cut has lately become the fashion and the icon of Caucasian hooligans notably in Britain)

Indian Origins: Bering Strait

‘As far as the origins of the Indians are concerned, some historians have postulated an early migration through the Bering Strait some 30,000 years ago. This strait links the Arctic Ocean with the Bering Sea, which separates Asia from North America. ‘During the Ice Age the sea level fell by several hundred feet, making the strait into a land bridge between Asia and North America, over which a considerable migration of plants and animals, as well as man took place, about 20,000 to 35,000 years.’ (Helen Jackson, 1994)

Europeans Discovering the Americas

From 1603 to 1776, ‘the four great powers, i.e., England, France, Spain and Portugal fought for ‘the right of sovereignty’ over North American territories.

‘President Adams in his message of 1828, described the policy of the United States towards the Indians at that time saying, “at the establishment of the federal government the principle was adopted in considering them as foreign and independent powers, we negotiated with them by treaties as proprietors, we purchased of them all the land which we could prevail on them to sell; as brethren of the human race, rude and ignorant, we endeavoured to bring them the knowledge of religion and letters.” Actually, the white men were not faithful to their treaties; for the treaties were neither broken by a mutual and peaceful agreement nor by a distinct avowal. The Indians were chased from their lands like Delawares and Cheyenne tribes. Thus “the name of the white man is to the Indians a synonym for ‘liar’.’ (ibid)

The Vikings: Leiv Erickson (1000)

The first recorded European exploration in America is in a Scandinavian language. It refers to Viking sailor Leiv Erickson. The Danes had previously invaded their Northern neighbors i.e., Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Greenland and Vineland (actual Canada).

The Spaniards: Christopher Columbus (1492)

In 1492, Queen Isabella welcomed the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus’ idea of crossing the Atlantic Ocean so as to open a way for European exploration, and colonization of the American Continents. He is known as the “discoverer” of the New World, although Viking Leiv Erickson had been there five centuries earlier. He was sponsored by Isabella and Ferdinand. Columbus was full of hope and ambition to earn gold and titles. He planned to go West so as to reach India in the East. He took three ships.

Columbus showed a genuine admiral's genius mastership. He sailed southward to the Canary Islands, off Morocco, rather than to the Azores in the West. This journey had defeated previous sailors. From the Canaries, he could pick up the North-East winds westward and eastward. After nearly a month, his sailors spotted floating vegetation ...

Table of contents

• Pages de titre
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1. NATIVE AMERICANS: GERONIMO (1829-1909)
• 2. WASP: PILGRIM FATHERS (1620)
• 3. AFRO-AMERICANS: MALCOLM X (1925-1965)
• CONCLUSION
• A SHORT HISTORY OF AMERICA
• GLOSSARY
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Page de copyright