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CONTENTS
1.1.1 Industrial Revolution 1.0
1.1.2 Industrial Revolution 2.0
1.1.3 Technology Development in Industrial 1.0 and 2.0
1.1.3.1 Textile
1.1.3.2 Steam Engine
1.1.3.3 Iron Production
1.1.3.4 Chemicals
1.1.3.5 Electricity
1.1.3.6 Transportation
1.1.3.7 Agriculture and Food Engineering
1.1.4 Industrialization beyond Britain
1.1.4.1 Sweden
1.1.4.2 United States
1.1.4.3 Japan
1.1.4.4 Belgium
1.1.5 Social Effects of the Industrial Revolution
1.1.5.1 Factories and Labors
1.1.5.2 Social Effect for Women
1.1.5.3 Urbanization
1.1.6 Conclusion
References
1.1.1 Industrial Revolution 1.0
The First Industrial Revolution (IR) was a new transition (760–1830s) in Europe and United States to a manufacturing era. Aware of the head start, the British forbade the export of machinery, skilled workers, and manufacturing equipment to other Europe countries. However, the monopolies could not last a long period due to high profitable industrial opportunities abroad, while many European businessmen sought to lure British know-how to their countries. Thus, it leads to an unprecedented rise in the population growth rate and standard of living in the Europe Continental as claimed by many economies. The major effect of IR 1.0 was that the increase of living standard for the Western colonization for the first time in history (Szreter and Mooney 1998). This is because the GDP per capita growth significantly throughout the revolution and emergence into a modern capitalist economy. Thus, most of the economic historians are in a good agreement that the onset of the revolution is the most glorious event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants (Hirschman and Mogford 2009; Clark 2014; Akhter and Ormerod 2015).
1.1.2 Industrial Revolution 2.0
The Second IR is commonly known as the Technological Revolution, which is said to begin between the year of 1870 and 1914s; although number of major breakthrough events can be dated to the 1850s. However, it was seen that swift rate of pioneering inventions were dawdled after year 1825 and accelerated in the last third of the century (Mokyr 2000). In this revolution, the invention moved toward micro invention instead of macro invention which focused mainly on the productivity, and product quality improvements rather than path breaking invention.
It was observed that the inventions after 1870s were different compared to the First IR and it was found that the innovations were more productive and denser (Mowery and Rosenberg 1991). One of the aspects during this revolution is that people viewed useful knowledge can be mapped into new technology. This can be further explained that during the previous IR i.e., First IR, most people are unable to understand how certain things do not function and hardly understood why it could work for certain inventions from engineering, medical technology, to agriculture (Mokyr 2000). Hence, the people’s viewpoint of technology is knowledge and considerable feedback from technology to science that lead to outcomes of technology improvement and novel invention during this revolution. The second aspect during this revolution is the changing nature of the organization of production (Mokyr 2000). This has resulted in a massive boost in the economic scale in terms of manufacturing and organizational, and marketing factors involved. A typical example in manufacturing is providing storage for chemicals, which involves the construction of storage containers which correlated to the surface area and the volume of the chemicals interrelates with the capacity of storage. As for the organizational factor, an example can be the mass production via interchangeable parts technology involved. As for the involvement of the marketing side, it was observed that big U.S. companies such as Dupont, General Electric, and others were involving a small portion of the labor force and emphasized flexibility and targeting to a more general market (Floud 2004).
There were also some consequences faced during this revolution phase when alteration was made on the production technology, which was attributed to the increasing technological system (Hughes 1983). This IR had converted large technological system from unique to ordinary (Mokyr 2000). This happened because the system involved a large amount of synchronization that free market finds it difficult to supply, and therefore this involved either the government or leading organizations to make a decision on standards for railroad gauges, electricity voltages, road regulations, and many more. The idea of producing separate components in a technology that could be optimized separately did not came to realization after year 1870.
1.1.3 Technology Development in Industrial 1.0 and 2.0
Many new technologies have been discovered during the transition, not limited to hand production to machines, new machine tools manufacturing, and power generation using steam as well as iron ore production processes as shown in Table 1.1.1. The following sections will be discussing the major developments during the First and Second IRs which consist of steel, chemicals, electricity, and transportation, agriculture, and food engineering.
Table 1.1.1
The Technologies Discovered in Industrial Revolution 1.0 and 2.0 | Technology Development | Remarks | References |
Textile | 1. Development of mechanized cotton spinning powered by steam or water, enhancing the worker output by a factor of around 500. 2. Highest productivity was cotton, followed by wool and linen. | Harley (2012); Nuvolari (2019) |
Steam power | 1. The invention of the stationary steam engine was one the key element for the IR. 2. In 1800s, approximately 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam in Britain. 3. Ease the transportation as the high-pressure engine has a higher power to weight ratio. 4. Enable a large production of iron by countering the water power limitation using steam engine. | Bruland and Smith (2013); Amengual Matas (2007) |
Iron making | 1. The iron bar commodity has been used as the feedstock for making hardware goods. 2. Part of the iron bars are converted into kitchen utensils such as steel pots and stoves. 3. The iron bars were made by the bloomery process – a predominant iron smelting process developed in IR 1.0. 4. Reduction the fuel cost of iron production through substitution of coke for charcoal. | Bottomley (2014); B.J. Spear (2019) |
Invention of machine tools | 1. During 1798s, paper machine was patented by a French guy known as Nicholas Louis Robert. 2. During 1832s, glass making machine was developed in Europe by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. | Clapperton (1967); Hounshell (1984); Hopkins (2013) |
Mining | 1. Before development of the steam engine, removal of water is an issue. The introduction of the steam pump engine in 1712s overcome the problem of water removal, enabling more coal to be extracted and mining become more profitable. | B. Spear (2008) |
1.1.3.1 Textile
During IR 1.0, textiles were the dominant industry in terms of employment and capital market cap (Ayres 1990). By 1750s, Britain has imported more than 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, in which most of them were spun and woven. Most of the work was performed by hand in home or master weaver’s shops. In 1800,...
