Criminal Theory Profiles

Inside the Minds of Theorists of Crime and Deviance

Joshua D. Behl, Leonard A. Steverson

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2021
• Print ISBN: 9780367478148
• eBook ISBN: 9781000432787
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Criminology
• Index: Social Sciences

This book brings to life the major theories of crime and deviance by presenting detailed profiles that help readers differentiate each theory and its major propositions by better understanding how, when, and by whom the theory was formed.

Criminology is based on strong theoretical foundations that attempt to answer the question of why people commit crime. Criminological theory is especially complex in that theorists come from a variety of disciplines including medicine, sociology, psychology, economics, and law. While not an exhaustive list of each theorist's works, nor an in-depth review of the empirical work that has been done on each theory, this text tracks the intellectual development of a theory by profiling the theorists who are responsible for the major ideas in criminological thought. By viewing the field in the context of the social conditions of the time and the personal histories of the theorists, students can better understand the intellectual history of each theory and the relationship between criminology and other fields, to grasp a better appreciation of how the science of crime and the study of criminals has evolved.

All chapters are organized with a brief overview of the theorist and their significant ideas, a biographical profile of the theorist, coverage of the theoretical developments and contributions of the theorist, a list of major works by the theorist, and a summary detailing the overall legacy of the theorist in the field. This book is ideal for courses on criminology, criminological theory, and criminal behavior.

1

Introduction

DOI: 10.4324/9781003036609-1

Goals of this Text

Criminology as a field – and Sociology of Deviance is included in this definition – is based on strong theoretical foundations to answer the question of why people commit crime. This question has been vexing researchers for centuries. The ideas that have been developed to answer this seemingly unanswerable question range from viewing crime as an individual choice, to viewing crime as caused by societal factors that are forced onto individual members of society. Regardless of the answers developed, the question of why people commit crime is still one of great interest to researchers and students today.

Most textbooks on criminological or sociological theories of deviance are either focused heavily on the Criminal Justice System and how the theories of crime fit into the system more broadly (see Larry Seigel’s entire series of theory textbooks published under Cengage Publishing) or go into great detail on the theories themselves (e.g., operational definitions of variables, how they have been measured, etc.), while providing little in the way of criminal justice application and detail (See Akers, Sellers, & Jennings, 2016; Kubrin, Stucky, & Krohn, 2009). This text attempts to achieve neither goal. Rather than add another option to the already crowded theory text market, this text attempts to view theories from the lens of the theorist. In other words, this text’s primary focus is on the theorists and their theories.

Criminal Theory Profiles has the potential to connote a lot of different ideas. When criminologists and sociologists hear profiling, they may think of racial profiling, criminal profiling, crime scene profiling, or a host of other ideas. That is not at all what we mean. A profile can be defined as an outline, or a short biographical sketch that brings certain aspects of a biography into sharper focus. C. Wright Mills (1959) implored readers of The Sociological Imagination to seek to understand the connection between a person’s individual biography and the larger social history, the environment in which that biography was formed. Therefore, we hope to provide students with a text that places each theorist in their larger historical and social context to better explain how the theorists developed their respective theories. The authors of this text have noticed over the years that students tend to study certain theories and view with skepticism how they were ever widely accepted by the field. Once the historical context of the theories is explained, the students understand the significance. For example, similarities can be seen between the Jewish Holocaust and Lombroso’s theory of crime, even though Lombroso wrote the theory nearly 50 years before the outbreak of World War II. The logic of eugenics and extermination is quite similar. This reinforces the sociological idea that we are all a product of our social environment (Mills, 1959). Social science theorists are no different in that regard. To celebrate this idea, this text is an attempt to place the theorists in their social contexts to give students a more complete understanding of how the most popular theories of crime and deviance were developed.

It is also important to be quite clear as to what this text is hoping to accomplish. This is not an exhaustive list of each theorist’s works, nor is it an in-depth review of the empirical work that has been done on each theory. Rather, this text tracks the intellectual development of a theory by profiling the theorists who are responsible for each major idea in criminological thought. Of course, major theoretical works will be discussed, but so will the social conditions of the time and the personal histories of the theorists. This will allow for a more holistic view of the theory while also making the theorists more accessible to the readers rather than as giant intellectuals that seem out of touch with society.

What is a Theory?

To many in our society, the term “theory” connotes nothing more than an idea or hypothesis that has yet to be explored in any real way. Some have gone so far as to refer to theory as a “controlled fantasy” (Cuzzort, 1989, p. 10). However, in social sciences, theories are much more concrete than that. Akers, Sellers, and Jennings (2016), in their introductory chapter to a theory text, refer to theories as “tentative answers to the commonly asked questions about events and behaviors” (p. 1). In other words, theories are answers to questions that help us make sense of our everyday lives.

It is important to note that in social sciences, theories are inherently probabilistic – they do not suggest that if certain social factors are present, a certain behavior is inevitable. In fact, quite the opposite. Theories simply suggest that given a certain set of facts, a behavior is probabilistically more likely. This reliance on probability and testability is a key factor that theories of crime and deviance rely on to determine their value. As most theories are in competition with one another as to what the causes of crime or deviant behavior are, it is important that those who study theories of crime and deviance also know how best to evaluate the theories before adopting policies that support the ideas set out in the theory.

Akers et. al. (2016) lay out in great detail the best way to evaluate a theory to assess its value to the field (read Akers, et al., 2016 for a complete overview of this process). Basically, they suggest that a theory should be logically consistent, have broad scope, be parsimonious, testable, empirically valid, and have actionable policy implications. Testability and empirical validity are the most important criteria for theory evaluations because without those two things, theories would be scientifically useless.

It is also important when discussing theories of crime and deviance to make a distinction between theories of law creation and theories of criminal and deviant behavior. In the first category – theories of law creation – theorists, such as Donald Black, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim (two of whom have sections in this text as well), define why certain acts and individuals are defined as criminal while other, seemingly similar acts are not defined as criminal. For example, tobacco and marijuana are both plants that grow in the ground and can be smoked. Theories of law creation may attempt to explain why one is legal to smoke while the other, up until recently, was completely outlawed in America. Contrast this with theories of criminal and deviant behavior that attempt to explain why social and legal norms are violated. These theories, with their theorists, attempt to explain why certain individuals (micro-level) or societies (macro-level) are more criminogenic compared to other individuals or groups. This text’s focus is on the latter type of theories and will focus exclusively on theories of law violation rather than theories of law creation.

Sociology of Deviance or Criminology

This text is meant to be accessible to a wider audience than just those interested in criminology or criminal justice – it is also geared to be used by those interested in deviance more broadly defined. To that end, it is important to note the difference between the two seemingly interchangeable terms. Criminology, as a definition, is the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior. Therefore, of particular interest to criminologists is one specific, formal type of deviance – crime. Contrast that with the term “sociology of deviance”, whose definition could reasonably be the scientific study of norm violation, either formal (e.g., crime) or informal (e.g., rules set by parents, schools, etc.). While these definitions are certainly close, in fact, some scholars refer to the study of deviance as the “Sociology of Crime and Deviance”, the sociological definition is clearly broader in scope compared to the criminological (Downes, Rock & McLaughlin, 2016). The best theorists, and therefore theories, should be able to explain both types of behavior since both deal with violations of social control in some capacity.

Topic Areas

Since this text is a combination of both criminological and sociological ideas about crime and deviance, the chapters have contributions from both disciplines. The text begins with a chapter on the foundations of criminological thought and the origins of both the Classical School and the Positivist School of thought on crime and deviance (Chapter 2). It moves on to the most common usages of the Classical School in crime prevention (Chapter 3). The three major sociological explanations of crime and deviance – Control Theories, Learning Theories, and Anomie/Strain Theories – are then discussed (Chapters 4, 5, and 6). The text than shifts to macro-level theories and discusses societal explanations in deviance (Chapters 7 and 8). One specific macro level theory, Conflict Theory (Chapter 9), suggests that laws are created by those in power; therefore, laws are used as a hegemonic strategy to maintain that power. Using this conflict paradigm, gender (Chapter 10) and race (Chapter 11) are also discussed. Finally, the text discusses the newest trends in criminological and deviance research with the focus being on crime over the life course (Chapter 12).

The reader will notice that each chapter follows the same basic format. The chapter begins with an overview of the theoretical orientation that will be discussed. Then, the chapter is broken down into each theorist. Each section will begin with a brief introduction and a biography of the theorist. This allows for the primary goal of this text to be accomplished – namely, identifying the historical and social context that had an influence on each theorist. The second section will provide an overview of the theory that is credited to each theorist or theorists. (As is often the case in social science research, more than one theorist may be credited with the theory that was developed. For example, Mike Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi coauthored A General Theory of Crime where they outlined self-control theory. In these cases, both theorists may be discussed simultaneously.) The third section is an overview of the theoretical works that were written by each theorist. Finally, there is a legacy section that discusses the impact each theorist had on the larger field of Criminology and Sociology. As is often the case in research, some legacies are positive while others are a bit more critical. However, every attempt is made to be as fair as possible in evaluating the legacy of each theorist. Therefore, the authors do not discuss personal preference for theories but leave it up to each reader to decide which explanations they find most desirable.

References

Akers, R.L., Sellers, C.D.S., & Jennings, W.G. (2016). Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, & Application (7th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Cuzzort, R.P. (1989). Using Social Thought. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Downes, D., Rock, P.E., & McLaughlin, E. (2016). Understanding Deviance: A Guide to the Sociology of Crime and Rule-breaking. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kubrin, C.E., Stucky, T.D., & Krohn, M.D. (2009). Researching Theories of Crime and Deviance. New York: Oxford University Press.

Mills, C.W. ([1959]2000). The Sociological Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press.

2

Foundations in Criminology and the Sociology of Deviance

Beccaria & Bentham, Lombroso

DOI: 10.4324/9781003036609-2

Introduction

From Adam and Eve eating the apple to the modern day, rule violation has been a central focus of civilization. This chapter will introduce you to some of the earliest scientific thoughts on rule violation and criminal behavior. Beginning with Beccaria and Bentham, readers will be exposed to the idea of law as a deterrent – or using punishment to control human behavior. Readers will note that neither Beccaria nor Bentham were trained sociologists or criminologists, but they still made a huge impact on the field and study of deviance. In fact, their contributions are commonly referred to as the “Classical School”.

Next, readers will note Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician, who was also interested in the study of crime, but viewed rule violation as a sign of evolutionary relapse. He argued that crime was due to inborn abnormalities and that the causes of crime could be traced back to the individual. Lombroso is credited with the forming of a “Positivist School” that shifts the focus of crime causation from society to innate differences within the individual offenders.

While Beccaria and Bentham are typically grouped with other crime prevention and deterrence theorists, and Lombroso is grouped with other biological/biosocial theorists, we are more interested in the social climate and intellectual impact of the theorists. Therefore, we grouped these seemingly disparate theorists together, as they are founders of different schools of thought in the study of crime and deviant behavior.

Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) & Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

Introduction

Considered the “Father of Criminal Justice”, Cesare Beccaria’s influence over the field of criminology and the sociology of deviance is perhaps the greatest of everyone in this text...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• Acknowledgements
• by Joshua D. Behl
• by Leonard A. Steverson
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Foundations in Criminology and the Sociology of Deviance: Beccaria & Bentham, Lombroso
• 3. Crime Prevention: Jeffery, Clarke
• 4. Theories of Social Control: Gusfield, Hirschi, Sykes & Matza, Cohen
• 5. Learning Theories: Tarde, Sutherland, Akers
• 6. Anomie and Strain Theories: Durkheim, Merton, Agnew
• 7. Social Disorganization: Park & Burgess, Thrasher, Shaw & McKay
• 8. Societal Reactions and Labeling of Deviance: Tannenbaum, Lemert, Goffman, Becker, Braithwaite
• 9. Conflict Theories: Bonger, Chambliss, Quinney, Taylor, Walton, & Young, Black
• 10. Gender and Crime: Adler & Simon, Daly & Chesney-Lind, Messerschmidt
• 11. Race and Crime: Du Bois, Work, Bell & Delgado
• 12. Crime Over the Life Course: Glueck & Glueck, Sampson & Laub
• Index