Understanding Afghanistan

History, Politics and the Economy

Abdul Qayyum

• Publisher: Routledge India
• Year: 2021
• Print ISBN:
  9781032250113
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000426502
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Economic History
• Index: History

This book delves into the history of Afghanistan, its people, and its relationship with neighbors, to unravel the intricate politics and ethnolinguistic diversity of the country.

It discusses the history of innumerable invasions which left imprints over the country and its people and created a complex fabric of different ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural groups. The volume looks at the various empires which warred over the land including the Persian, Greek, Mongol, and Sassanid dynasties, as well as the later interferences by the British and the Russians and the emergence of the Taliban. It examines the correlations between war, power politics, religion, local governance, and the opium trade and economy in Afghanistan. The author through personal stories and anecdotes of his visits and journeys in Afghanistan provides a very rich and extensive view of Afghan politics, culture and history. The relationship between Afghanistan and Pakistan and Afghanistan's unique position in the politics of the region is also a thread which runs through the entire book.

This book will a great resource (and of interest) to researchers and students of politics, history, Central and South Asian Studies, war and international relations, political economy, and peace and reconciliation studies. It will also interest journalists, diplomats and international development organizations.

1
ANCIENT HISTORY OF AFGHANISTAN

DOI: 10.4324/9781003198376-1

The great Persian Empire, according to Omrani and Leeming, was established by King Cyrus ¹ (550–529 bc) stretched from the parts of the Balkan states to Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Babylon (Iraq), Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Iran, Afghanistan, and modern-day Pakistan. After the death of Cyrus, Darius I became king in 521 bc and ruled until his death in 486 bc. According to Ewans, Darius consolidated and expanded the Persian Empire from Central Asia to the Indus Valley in the south – Iran, Afghanistan, and modern-day Pakistan – and established the governorships at Herat (Aria), Sistani (Drangiana), Balkh (Bactria), Merv, Khiva, Ghazni, Kandahar, and Peshawar Valley (Gandhara). ²

The Persians were the first of the invaders who hit the road of conquest into the land of Afghanistan. The Persians established their authority in the plains of Balkh which were very fertile for agriculture and the place became a center for international trade of lapis lazuli. Balkh and Mundigak near Kandahar were the international trade centers that served the areas from Mesopotamia, an area between Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq, to the Indus Valley (now in Pakistan). While moving southward, the Persians directed their expeditions on two sides – one leading to the Iranian plateau and the other leading toward Bolan Pass through Mundigak, Kandahar, to the Indus Valley. After Darius I, many Persian rulers ruled until the last king of the Persian Empire, Darius III, who started ruling in 336 bc. Darius ruled until his death at the hands of his second-in-command General Bessos in 330 bc. Darius was having difficulty in governing the tribes of Afghanistan. The tribes of Balkh were in continuous war with Darius until the arrival of Alexander the Great of Macedonia.

King Philip-II of Macedonia wanted to invade the Persian Empire as an act of revenge for the Persian king Xerxes’ unsuccessful invasion of Greece in 480 bc. ³ According to Romm and Strassler, Alexander alleged that his father King Philip-II was assassinated by the anti-Macedonian Athenians and one suspect, Kharidemos, fled to Asia and joined Darius’ army. Later, his twenty-year-old son and student of Aristotle, Alexander the Great, took the task of completing his father’s unfinished business.

After controlling and consolidating Macedonia and the Greek Empire, Alexander started his conquest of Asia in 334 bc. Alexander traveled through the Edirne city of Edirne Province of northwest Turkey, which borders Greece and Bulgaria and falls within Europe. Edirne is in the north of the Sea of Marmara, which is within the borders of Turkey and which separates the European and the Asian territories of Turkey. Alexander then crossed the Dardanelles Strait, also known as the Hellespont Strait, into the Canakkale city and the sea port of Canakkale Province of Turkey on the South Asian coast of the Dardanelles Strait. Edirne was the capital of the eastern branch of the Roman Empire before the present capital of modern-day Istanbul, previously known as Byzantium and then Constantinople.

Alexander, on his way, conquered the small cities and towns of the Asia Minor region, also known as Anatolia, and established his satrapies in these areas. When Alexander reached the Granicus River in Canakkale Province of Turkey, he got the information that the Persian armies had already assembled at Zeleia across the river to meet Alexander’s army. ⁴ The Persian army had 20,000 horsemen and some Greek mercenaries. The two armies stood against each other across the Granicus, ⁵ now the Biga Cayl river, near modern-day Ergili, Turkey. The Persians were attacked from all sides and were cut into pieces with the exception of the Greek mercenaries.

This was the first battle, known as the Battle of Granicus, between Alexander the Great and the great Persian Empire in which the Persians were defeated. ⁶ All the Persian generals were killed in this battle. ⁷ About 1,000 Persian horsemen died. Alexander captured about 2,000 Greek mercenaries who were made slaves and were sent back to Macedonia to work as laborers. On the other hand, Alexander’s twenty-five companions, sixty horsemen, and thirty infantry men died. Alexander buried the dead the next day with their arms.

After the Battle of Granicus, Alexander captured the northwest, the central west, and the southwest of the Anatolia region. The areas that were subjected by Alexander included the city of Daskyleion in the northwest of Turkey, Sardis, now called Sartmustafa in Manisa Province, Ephesus in Izmir Province, Aydin Province, western Anatolia and Halicarnassus, and the port city known as Bodrum. Alexander appointed his own men as the satraps of the conquered areas to collect the taxes as were being paid to Darius before.

Alexander left for Ankara and heard that Darius had camped in the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun. Alexander and his general, Parmenion, moved southward to reach Iskenderun. Darius on the other hand moved northward to attack Alexander from behind. When Alexander reached Issus (Iskenderun), he left the wounded and the sick soldiers at Issus and continued advancing southward to get hold of Darius’ army, unaware of the fact that Darius was behind his forces. Darius with his army arrived at Issus and captured Alexander’s soldiers that he had left behind and cut off their hands and also cut the supply line of Alexander. ⁸ This was the first victory of Darius at Issus.

In autumn 333 bc, Darius directed 30,000 horsemen and 20,000 army troops, who crossed Pinaros River ⁹ that falls into the Gulf of Issus and the battle was fought in the south of Issus. The exact name of the place of battle is unknown. The battle was called the second Battle of Issus. The army of Darius comprised 600,000 fighters in total. ¹⁰ The two armies were positioned at the right and the left flanks against each other. Alexander ordered his army to attack the left flank of the Persian army. Although the Persians at the left flank bolted, the Greek mercenaries found a gap in Alexander’s two units and attacked his forces to drive them back to the river and a fierce battle ensued in which 120 Macedonians died. ¹¹ To relieve the pressure on the struggling Macedonians, Alexander attacked the central unit of the Persian army. The Persians did their best to withstand the Macedonians but failed. When the Persian army heard that Darius had fled and the Greek mercenaries had been cut, those who survived became confused, panicky, and were in disarray. The Persians started their retreat desperately. The Persian generals were killed. Only 4,000 Persians survived, ¹² who later joined Darius and then crossed the Euphrates River. Darius took the treasures to Damascus. In Darius’ camp lived his family including his mother (Sisygambis), ¹³ wife (Stateira), and daughters Barsine, also known as Stateira II, and Drypetis. Alexander took Darius’ family in his protective custody.

Darius then sent a letter to Alexander negotiating a peace treaty and requesting an order for the release of his family members. According to Romm and Strassler, Alexander wrote back to Darius, stating,

your ancestors came to Macedonia and the rest of Greece and did us a great harm, though you had suffered no harm before then. I, having been made leader of the Greeks and wishing to take revenge on the Persians, made the crossing into Asia, but it was you who began the quarrel. When my father died at the hands of conspirators whom you had organized and sent the Greeks unfriendly letters about me inciting them to war against me. When you did all this, I marched against you. Now I have prevailed in battle and the gods have given me possession of the country. Approach me and ask for your mother, wife, children and anything else you like. And in future address me as the king of Asia. I will get you wherever you go. ¹⁴

In 332 bc, Alexander moved toward the south along the Mediterranean coastal region of Syria, Lebanon, and Israel known as the Phoenician region. Alexander captured the Syrian ports of Byblos, now called Jubail, Sidon, and Tyre. Darius once again requested Alexander to renegotiate a peace deal. Alexander again rejected Darius’ request for peace. When Darius saw no hope of peace with the Macedonians, he started preparing for another war.

Now, Alexander started to march toward Egypt. On his way, he was resisted by the people of Gaza in Palestine. The Gaza Strip was very important for Alexander to be able to enter Egypt. Alexander made three assaults on the fortress but could not succeed. On the fourth assault, Alexander’s forces were able to break the gates and walls of the fortress and capture it. Although the city was captured by Alexander, Gaza’s residents decided to fight till their death. All the fighters were killed and Alexander enslaved the women and children and resettled the city with his followers.

After Gaza, Alexander reached Pelusium, ¹⁵ a city near the site of modern-day Tell el-Farama, located in the south of Port Said in Sena Peninsula with the Gulf of Aqaba in the southeast, the Gulf of Suez in the southwest, and the Red Sea in the south. The Persian satrap of Pelusium did not resist Alexander and surrendered his city. Alexander established his garrison here and crossed the Nile River and reached Memphis, known in Arabic as Menf, about 20 kilometers south of Cairo on the west bank of the Nile. The city of Pelusium does not exist now but its ruins can still be found near the modern-day town of Mit Rahina. After this, Alexander marched along the Mediterranean coast and found a site where he founded a new city after his name as Alexandria, which exists even today in Egypt ¹⁶ and where he is buried.

Alexander now planned to return back to Asia. He wanted to cross the Euphrates River to reach Mesopotamia. ¹⁷ Both these rivers originate in Turkey. The Euphrates flows through Syria into Iraq and the Tigris flows from Turkey into Iraq. These two rivers meet at a place in the north of modern-day Basra in Iraq and then fall into the Persian Gulf. Darius had appointed Mazaios with 3,000 horsemen including 2,000 Greek mercenaries to guard the Euphrates River. On hearing of the arrival of Alexander, Mazaios fled. Alexander crossed the Euphrates River without any resistance. Alexander now marched through the countryside of the Mesopotamian region to reach Babylon. Babylon, a Greek name, was the capital of Mesopotamia, and its ruins can be found about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad of modern-day Iraq.

Darius had assembled a big force of 40,000 cavalry and a million infantry units accompanied by 200 chariots and a good number of Indian elephants. Darius set up his camp at Gaugamela, which was reported to be roughly 75 miles from the city of Arbil, or near Mosul in modern-day Iraq. Both the Persian and Macedonian armies stood opposite each other at a distance of 4 miles. ¹⁸ Darius took his position at the center; Bactrians and Syrians were at the left and right flanks. Alexander took control of the right flank, Parmenion was in charge of the left flank, and other Macedonian forces took their position at the center. ¹⁹ The Persians in the left and right flanks fled and Alexander lost about sixty of his companions. Alexander pursued Darius but could not apprehend him, though he got hold of his treasures. Alexander lost about 100 of his men and about 1,000 horses; the Persians lost about 300,000 fighting men and more than that number were captured alive by Alexander’s forces. Alexander scored a decisive victory over the Persian Empire and captured a substantial segment of Darius’ army, which included the Arians, Persians (Parthians), Afghans, Indians, and also the elephants and other supplies of army materiel. That was the end of the third battle at Gaugamela between the Persian and Macedonian forces.

From Babylon, Alexander reached Susa, at which site now the modern-day Iranian town of Shush in Khuzestan Province is located. Alexander entered Susa and seized a lot of treasury and artifacts that he sent to Athens. Alexander advanced further and captured Persepolis, seized the treasury, and burned the royal palace of the Persian Empire in revenge for the burning of Athens by the Persians. ²⁰ Persepolis is the Greek name of the ancient Iranian city of Parsa, now Takht-e-Jamshid, located about 50 kilometers to the northeast of Shiraz in the southern Fars region of modern-day Iran. Persepolis was the ruling center with the royal palace of the Persian king Darius I, whose son Xerxes had invaded and destroyed Athens in 490 bc. After burning down the royal palace of Persepolis, Alexander declared that he had paid back the Persians in the same coin.

After the capture of Persepolis, Alexander followed Darius III. During his flight, his soldiers deserted him and went back to the countries where they had come from. While moving eastward, in the spring of 330 bc, Alexander heard that Darius had been arrested by his second-in-command, Bessos, who proclaimed himself as the soi-disant successor of Darius and was assembling a large army in Bactria. ²¹ Bessos took the captive Darius along with him. When Alexander reached near Bessos in Damghan city in Semnan Province of modern-day Iran, ²² his two men, Satibarzanes and Barsaentes, stabbed Darius to death. ²³ Thus, the last king of the Achaemenid Empire, Darius III, was killed by the men of his deputy. Bessos left the dead body of Darius and moved toward Bactria. When Alexander heard this, he was saddened to know that his adversary had met death in such a way. He found Darius’ dead body in modern-day Damghan city ²⁴ and ordered that his body be carried to Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, and arranged a royal burial for him.

After conquering the Persian Empire, Alexander moved toward the east and, according to Ewans, entered Afghanistan in 330 bc ²⁵ in pursuit of Bessos. Alexander captured cities and established new ones such as Aria, modern-day Herat, Sistan (Iran), Kandahar (Arachosia), Bagram Fort (now Bagram base is being use...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of figures
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Glossary
• Select Chronology
• 1 Ancient history of Afghanistan
• 2 Genghis Khan and his dynasty
• 3 Amir Temur and his dynasty
• 4 Rise and Fall of Durrani Dynasty
• 5 The British Interference in Afghanistan
• 6 Struggle for Independence of Afghanistan
• 7 Rise and Fall of the Communist Regime in Afghanistan
• 8 Rise and fall of Taliban
• 9 Land and people
• 10 The gorges crossed by the foreign invaders
• 11 Wedding ring tossed in the Oxus River
• 12 The Crossing of the Oxus River
• 13 The trio
• 14 Nauroz
• 15 The opiates economy of Afghanistan
• Index