Introduction
Universities and HEIs in the last two decades have come to occupy an important part in national innovation systems (NIS). This is generally viewed as a complex of âall important economic, social, political, organizational, institutional and other factors that influence the development, diffusion and use of innovationsâ. A decade earlier, Freeman (1987) defined it as a ânetwork of institutions in the public and private sectors whose activities and interactions initiate, import and diffuse new technologiesâ. From a broader perspective, universities, together with public R&D labs and science agencies, public policies (on industry, research, innovation and higher education, etc.) and business enterprises, are now considered to be important actors in the Asia-Pacific economies. The rise of Asia in the global knowledge-based economy from the mid-1990s is closely associated with the rise of knowledge institutions of higher learning and scientific research output. Universities play an important part not only in the nation-building process but also in meeting societal challenges whether it is in health, aging, sustainability and climate change or in economic growth. In the case of industrialized countries, Mansfield (1991) found that one-tenth of the new products and processes commercialized from 1975 to 1985 could not have seen the face of market without substantial contribution from the academic research undertaken in universities. Further, Grilliches (1995) drew attention to the fact that the rate of return on basic science (generally found in the academic research settings) is about three times that of applied R&D (generally undertaken in firms). In a most revealing way, Schapper (2014), in his recent chapter on universities and their role in economic development for a UNESCO Report (2014) on Asia, pointed out, âit is estimated that between 1988 and 2010, U.S. federal investment in genomic research generated an economic impact of $796 billion, while spending on the Human Genome Project between 1990 and 2003 amounted to $3.8 billionâ.
Two features stand out that signify the transformation that is taking place. Firstly, there is the coupling of teaching and research for the advancement of knowledge, which indicates the research intensity in universities and HEIs. Secondly, the ability of these institutions to convert this research potential to have an impact on society and industry (Mowery and Bhaven Sampat 2006). There are now some interesting studies to show the impact of universities in specific regions. There are classic cases of Stanford and MIT in boosting innovation ecosystems and development in Silicon Valley and Route 128 in Boston regions, respectively (Leslie 1990). These developments came about over a long historical process involving broadly three overlapping phases of academic revolutions associated with three corresponding missions. After tracing the historical roots of these three academic revolutions, this chapter explores the post-war experiences of some Asian economies. Having explored the historical role of universities, the chapter attempts to capture how universities in recent decades have come to occupy a significant position in the respective national innovation systems.
The rise of Asia in the 21st century was possible, in a large measure, due to the part played by the research and innovation capacities of universities. China deserves a special mention as its higher education sector witnessed phenomenal growth both in terms of numbers, quality of teaching, research and innovation capacities. No other developing or emerging economy in the world attained the position in the World Class Universities rankings compared to China. The other factor that singles out China, among emerging economies, is the rise of its scientific and technological prowess which now competes at the global level and achieved an enviable position next to the United States in most of the frontier fields of knowledge production. Before we get down to explore various facets of Chinese universities in the national innovation system, this chapter is basically structured in a way to give a broader comparative perspective of Asian universities to readers. We shall begin with the understanding and view of three academic revolutions in the history of higher educational institutions.
Three academic revolutions
The first academic revolution came about when teaching in specialized higher educational institutions was institutionalized. In India, we can trace it to Nalanda and Takshashila, ancient universities in the Indian subcontinent. They functioned for more than 800 years between the 5th and 12th centuries ce. Nalanda functioned as a residential university with 2,000 teachers and 20,000 students coming from India, China, Korea, Mongolia, Turkey and Sri Lanka. It was the leading higher educational institution in the world in those times, which mainly focused on Buddhist studies, religion, culture and civilization. The only other university that is reported in this era was Al-Azhar University in Cairo, established in 972 ce. At this time, it specialized in Islamic learning, including law along with logic, grammar and rhetoric, and how to calculate the lunar phases of the moon. Nalanda and Takshashila were destroyed around the 12th century. The former has been re-established in its rejuvenated form under the former Chancellorship of Amartya Sen, N.L., since 2009â2010.2 Al-Azhar survives even today and emerged as a modern university to promote secular subjects as any other university in the world. The Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, the Catholic University of the Philippines, was established as a private Roman Catholic university in 1611.3 In Italy, the first systematic evidence of institutionalized teaching is reported at the University of Bologna, founded in 1088; in France, at the University of Paris, founded in 1160, and at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which were established around the 12th century. The first academic revolution phase continued until the beginning of the 19th century.
The âtransformation of universities from institutions of cultural preservationâ, mainly teaching and maintenance of knowledge toward the advancement of knowledge via research with a particular emphasis on science and technology disciplines, can be considered as the second academic revolution.4 Some scholars characterize this development as a âHumboldtian revolutionâ. For the first time, we witness the evolution of a model in the modern university that combines t...
