The Blue Economy in Sub-Saharan Africa

Working for a Sustainable Future

DONALD SPARKS, DONALD L. SPARKS

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000400335
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Economics
• Subtopic: Political Economy
• Index: Economics

The blue economy, comprising coastal and marine resources, offers vast benefits for sub-Saharan Africa: of the 53 countries and territories in the region, 32 are coastal states; there are 13 million sq km of maritime zones; more than 90% of the region's exports and imports come by sea; and the African Union hails the blue economy as the 'new frontier of African renaissance'.

Despite their importance, the region's coastal and marine resources have been neither fully appreciated nor fully utilized. They are only now being recognized as being key to Africa's potential prosperity. As the region grows, it has, in general, not taken adequate safeguards to protect these valuable resources. That is partly because some of the problems (pollution, for example) are regional and know no borders. All too often, short-term gains are made at the expense of the long term (overfishing, for example).

This book provides, for the first time, a study of the constraints and opportunities the blue economy offers for sub-Saharan Africa. It includes an introduction and overview; sectoral analyses (including tourism, fisheries, mineral resources, culture, shipping and maritime safety); country case studies; and analyses of regional and international efforts towards better coastal zone and marine management.

Part I

Elements of the blue economy

1 Culture, communities and society

Thean Potgieter, DPhil

Introduction

Africa’s history and future are intertwined with the sea: ‘Bad nin tegey yaab, waxuu ku warramana ma yaqaan’.¹ The sea is an inherent part of its culture, economy and existence, historically connecting the continent to the rest of the world. Contemporary sub-Saharan Africa is the product of its pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial experiences. Maritime interaction, from ancient contact with Arabian and Eastern civilizations to mercantile Europe, had a great influence on the region’s history. As mercantile and political interest continued to grow and expand, what started as coastal partnerships and a thirst for gold, ivory and slaves evolved into colonialism and the current quest for raw materials. After a complex narrative of development, resistance and subjection the second half of the twentieth century introduced an era of nationalism, triumph, freedom and realignment. Africa had to re-establish its relationship with the world and within the context of its capacity and limitations find new horizons. Crucial determinants through the centuries were Africa’s access to the sea and its own wealth, which made it both receptive and vulnerable to what the sea brought.

Interaction with the oceans is more limited in the history of sub-Saharan Africa than in that of the Mediterranean and certain parts of Asia, for example. Reasons for this vary, but it may be partly explained by the abundance of much of Africa’s soils, its relatively small populations, and vast distances from potential markets, compared to the concentred coastal populations and easy interaction across small stretches of ocean in other parts of the world. In addition, there are few natural harbours (the United Kingdom has more than the entire region) and navigable rivers leading to the sea. The recent history of sub-Saharan Africa is inward-looking and reflects ‘sea blindness’. This could to some extent be ascribed to the multiple challenges that the continent’s newly emerging states faced in the post-colonial era. However, the region needs to focus more closely on the sea and the inherent wealth of its maritime resources.

It is evident from the introduction to this chapter that sub-Saharan Africa has a complex maritime culture. But what is meant by maritime culture? ‘Maritime’ implies human activity related to the sea; it is connected with ships, the sea and being near the sea. ‘Culture’ denotes a way of life, specifically the general customs and beliefs shared by a particular group of people, evident in behaviour, habits, attitudes, language practices, morals and religious beliefs.² Cultural meaning evolves from shared experiences over time and permeates societal activities. It is not just a set of rules, or an interpretation of symbolic and ritual acts, but it is present in every field of human endeavour from politics and economy, to kinship and beliefs. As the interaction between society and its past is unending, history contributes significantly towards ‘shaping culture and its evolution’.³

In this discussion the maritime culture of sub-Saharan Africa is understood as the heritage, legacy and traditions inherited from past generations, focusing on human interaction with the ocean. As shared historical experiences influence cultural practices, a sense of historical processes and the evolution of societies is crucial. The chapter argues that the sea is an inextricable part of sub-Saharan African culture, represented in going to sea, coming from across the sea, belief systems, the economic exploitation of the sea, artefacts, maritime power, and shore-based practices that have evolved due to human interaction with the oceans.

Community, spirituality and the sea

Africa’s diverse spiritual and religious traditions have a central place in all spheres of life, social, economic and political, and it is said that African people are ‘notoriously religious’.⁴ The three main religious heritages – African traditional religion, Christianity and Islam – have a long history and exert considerable influence on the continent and are all associated with the maritime environment.

Traditional African belief systems can be traced back to the emergence of African societies. Humanity is associated with lineage and community, which define people’s spiritual origins and create uniqueness informed by ethnic identity. Membership of a community, and its associated language, beliefs, habits and memories, shapes consciousness and is not necessarily a political unity. The unifying concept is kinship, as the source of wisdom is attainable through ancestors, and specific lineages link living people to the spirits of those that went before.⁵ Spirituality is a core African value, and it is not to be understood in the Western, Eastern, Christian or Islamic conception of a deity or gods.

One important aspect of this spirituality revolves around water: it is recognized as being essential to life and is a source of strong spiritual power. Water spirits are linked to rivers, wetlands and the sea and these have imparted gifts linked to healing, sacred knowledge, psychic abilities and medicinal plants to healers and diviners who are the custodians of traditional knowledge.⁶ Water deities in African tradition belief systems are linked to fresh water as well as to the sea.

Although various examples exist, the following instances could briefly be highlighted. Beliefs about water spirits, particularly those related to the snake and the mermaid, and their role in the calling of traditional healers, are complex in Southern Africa. The dwelling places where these spirits reside (deep pools, often below waterfalls, fast-moving water, or the sea) are sacred and are key to the training of healers and the performance of family rituals.⁷

The age-old religious customs of the Yorùbá people of Western Africa are a wide blend of indigenous beliefs, myths, legends, proverbs and songs influenced by the cultural and social contexts of their region.⁸ The sea is a constant source of reflection and explanation about the world and the unknown. In the Yorùbá religion, the ancient meaning of Olokun (also referred to as a sea god) is vast; she is the owner of great waters and a symbol of the ocean depths and seas. Olukun is linked with the Mother of Fishes, Yemoja or Yemonja, and they represent abundance, fertility and prosperity, as well as the sources of life and mystery.⁹ Yorùbá practices were taken across the Atlantic by enslaved Africans, influencing belief systems as part of the African diaspora. In Santeria (an Afro-Caribbean religion based on Yorùbá beliefs), Yemaya is the Ocean Mother Goddess and is often depicted as a queenly mermaid. Anything from the sea is a symbol of Yemaya as her energy comes from sea rocks and shells.¹⁰

Despite colonialism and the introduction of Christianity and Islam, traditional belief systems remain prominent as some coastal fishing communities in Ghana still embrace traditional beliefs related to the sea and fishing.¹¹ Of note is the belief that water symbolizes peace, fertility and growth and that the sea is a deity protecting and overseeing fishing. The sea is a custodian of morality and bad luck can be ascribed to punishment by sea deities for violating fishing taboos.¹²

Christianity and Islam were both partly introduced through maritime interaction. The early introduction of Christianity to North Africa, apart from Ethiopia, was followed centuries later by its reintroduction as a result of European voyages round the continent. From the seventh century onwards, Islam spread by way of Indian Ocean trade routes and across the Sahel. Although trans-Saharan trade between West Africa and the Mediterranean predated Islam, it was strengthened by North African Muslims and Islam gradually spread to coastal states, including present-day Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea and Nigeria. It went along with the written word: through Arabic, the language of the Quran, West African Muslims documented events and culture, while Islamic writing and calligraphy inspired art. As a result of colonialism Arabic lost some of its political and administrative importance.

As Swahili settlements had much contact with each other and the Arabic world, together with language, the influence of Islam spread extensively and created a common bond between those already associated with the ocean, with worldviews matching customs and practices. Seafarers and traders were at ease with one another because, despite their political differences, they shared commonalities in language and faith.¹³ Although East Africa does not have centres of learning and Islamic culture as does West Africa, a notable medieval traveller, Ibn Battuta, describes fourteenth-century Mogadishu as a prosperous trade port known for its mosque, which inhabitants of the region visited specially on certain dates.¹⁴ Mosques are ubiquitous to Swahili settlements. Many have been in use for centuries or are now famous as ruins such as those of the Great Mosque of Kilwa in ...