Foucault moved to the LycĂ©e Henri-IV in Paris in 1945 shortly after the war ended, where he was briefly taught by Hyppolite. Foucault studied philosophy, history and literature in French, German, English, Latin and Greek, reading widely in classical texts. This was the khĂągne class to prepare for the concours entrance exam for the ENS. Foucault had failed that exam in 1945 while still studying in Poitiers, but passed in 1946.1 He had also support from Maurice Rat, a family friend who taught at the LycĂ©e Janson-de-Sailly and had passed the agrĂ©gation in grammar in 1919.2 Foucault entered the ENS in Autumn 1946 and over the next several years he attended lectures both at its rue dâUlm site and at the nearby Sorbonne. Foucault was awarded a licence in philosophy in 1948 and one in psychology in 1949. He also received a diplĂŽme in general psychology from the Paris Institut de Psychologie in 1949.3 At the ENS Foucault was taught by Jean Beaufret, Jean-Toussaint Desanti, Merleau-Ponty and, from 1948, Louis Althusser. At the Sorbonne he attended classes by Daniel Lagache and Julian Ajuriaguerra on psychiatric science; Henri Gouhier, Merleau-Ponty, Wahl and Hyppolite on philosophy.4 While he also read his teachersâ work, much of their importance comes from the classes they taught. Years later, Lagache was on Foucaultâs thesis jury, Gouhier its chair, Hyppolite the rapporteur for his second thesis (see Chapter 8).
Philosophy and its History
Beaufret taught widely across the history of philosophy. He is best known as the recipient of Heideggerâs Letter on Humanism, sent in response to questions Beaufret posed in 1946.5 He is the author of the four-volume Dialogues avec Heidegger,6 and known for his long introduction and translation of Parmenidesâ poem, often known as âOn Natureâ.7 However, Beaufret apparently never taught a course on Heidegger, thinking his thought could not be summarized.8 Instead his teaching covered Plato and Aristotle; Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz, Baruch Spinoza; Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche and Husserl.9 Heideggerâs thought does influence much of Beaufretâs teaching: with the exception of Spinoza, these figures were the focus of most of Heideggerâs own teaching career. Foucault kept notes on what appear to be lectures by Beaufret on Kant and Spinoza.10 Beaufret eventually taught a short course on Heideggerâs Being and Time at a lycĂ©e in 1972.11 Beaufret fought for France in the war, escaped from a prisoner-of-war camp, and joined the resistance. He has been criticized for his uncritical attitude to Heideggerâs Nazi past and for his own alleged anti-Semitism and Holocaust denial.12
Desanti was a philosopher of mathematics, a student of Jean CavaillĂšs, but also a phenomenologist, Spinoza scholar and a member of the PCF until 1956.13 When Jacques Derrida finally submitted his Doctorat dâĂtat in 1980, based on publications, it was directed by Desanti. Derridaâs original supervisor had been Hyppolite, but that thesis was never completed.14 Gouhier mainly worked on French philosophy between Descartes and Bergson, and it seems Foucault attended lectures by him on both.15 Gouhier was also an authority on the theatre, and also helped to edit works by Maine de Biran, Auguste Comte and Henri Bergsonâs lectures.16 He was the supervisor of Pierre Bourdieuâs dissertation on Leibniz, a translation and commentary on the Animadversiones in partem generalem Principiorum cartesianorum.17 In 1978 Gouhier would invite Foucault to a lecture to the SociĂ©tĂ© française de philosophie only published after Foucaultâs death, known as âWhat is Critique?â18
These figures gave Foucault a broad education in philosophy, but central to his subsequent development was Wahl, a wide-ranging philosopher and historian of philosophy, who worked especially on Plato, Hegel, Nietzsche and Heidegger. He wrote a key work for the French engagement with Hegel in 1929 and a major, 750-page study of Kierkegaard in 1938, one of the first French engagements with existentialism.19 His Human Existence and Transcendence was published in 1944 but, unlike Jean-Paul Sartreâs work from the previous year, has only recently been translated.20 Wahl was also significant in terms of his engagement with Anglophone work, a textbook on French philosophy, and a general introduction on Philosophies of Existence.21 Wahl ran the CollĂšge philosophique at which Derrida presented âCogito and the History of Madnessâ in 1963; and would invite Foucault to give the âWhat is an Author?â lecture to the SociĂ©tĂ© française de philosophie in 1969.22
Crucially for Foucault, Wahl taught on Heidegger from the mid 1940s through the 1950s. Derrida recalls that Heidegger was very much a presence at the ENS due to Beaufret and Hyppolite.23 But Wahlâs Sorbonne courses did much more. They were based on both on his reading of published texts, but also his knowledge of Heideggerâs courses of the 1920s and 1930s.24 Despite some reports, Wahl did not attend lectures himself, noting in a letter to Heidegger of December 1937 that he âwould love to meet with you one day. But all sorts of obstacles stand in the way at present.â25 Foremost among those obstacles was his Jewish heritage, which meant he left Europe during the war. But Wahl certainly had access to notes from Heideggerâs courses.
Wahlâs introductory course from January to June 1946 discussed Being and Time, but also Heideggerâs work on Kant and his discussion of truth, which as Jean Montenot notes closely parallels Heideggerâs own 1928â9 course at the University of Freiburg Einleitung in die Philosophie [Introductio...