Homer's Hero

Human Excellence in the Iliad and the Odyssey

Michelle M. Kundmueller

• Publisher: SUNY Press
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN: 9781438476667, 9781438476674
• eBook ISBN: 9781438476681
• Topic: Philosophy
• Subtopic: Ancient & Classical Philosophy

Draws on Plato to argue that Homer elevated private life as the locus of true friendship and the catalyst of the highest human excellence.

Offering a new, Plato-inspired reading of the Iliad and the Odyssey, this book traces the divergent consequences of love of honor and love of one's own private life for human excellence, justice, and politics. Analyzing Homer's intricate character portraits, Michelle M. Kundmueller concludes that the poet shows that the excellence or virtue to which humans incline depends on what they love most. Ajax's character demonstrates that human beings who seek honor strive, perhaps above all, to display their courage in battle, while Agamemnon's shows that the love of honor ultimately undermines the potential for moderation, destabilizing political order. In contrast to these portraits, the excellence that Homer links to the love of one's own, such as by Odysseus and his wife, Penelope, fosters moderation and employs speech to resolve conflict. It is Odysseus, rather than Achilles, who is the pinnacle of heroic excellence. Homer's portrait of humanity reveals the value of love of one's own as the better, albeit still incomplete, precursor to a just political order. Kundmueller brings her reading of Homer to bear on contemporary tensions between private life and the pursuit of public honor, arguing that individual desires continue to shape human excellence and our prospects for justice.

PART I

THE ILIAD

1

Homer’s Honor-Loving Heroes

Ajax and Agamemnon

Ajax and Agamemnon reveal the power of the passion that MacIntyre discounts, demonstrating that the strength of their passion is—as Arendt might have predicted—linked to the strength of their considerable excellence in courage. Each performs incredible feats for the sake of the honor that can be won in the Trojan War. Ajax is fearless on the battlefield—protecting, encouraging, and leading the Achaian forces in their direst moments. Agamemnon too pursues glory courageously on the battlefield, but the leader of the Achaian army understands that his greatest honors will result from winning the war as a whole. With his heart and mind fixed on winning the Trojan War, Agamemnon’s decisions as general and political leader are dominated by the potential for victory.

Revisiting the loves and virtues of Ajax and Agamemnon does not merely confirm the power of the love of honor. Contrary to what Arendt would lead one to expect, Homer reveals the limitations of the love of honor—a dark side that is linked to the failings in excellence of both heroes. Within Socrates’s myth, Ajax and Agamemnon each had the opportunity—well ahead of Odysseus, while there were still more lives remaining for selection—to choose his next life, but each made explicitly nonhuman choices by becoming animals.1 Ultimately, close study of Ajax and Agamemnon reveals what Socrates left implicit about the cause of their failings in excellence and their subsequent rejections of humanity. Necessary though love of honor might be to win the battles of the Trojan War, this passion develops into a threat to necessary alliances between allies and ultimately becomes the motivation perpetuating the war itself.

Ajax, Wall of the Achaians

Achilles and Ajax, the two Achaian leaders who beach their ships at the ends of the Achaian fleet on the Trojan shore because they are “sure of the strength of their hands and their courage,” stand apart from all of their companions for their battlefield excellence and resulting strategic importance (VIII.225–26; XI.7–9). Indeed, although Ajax is frequently described as “far the best … while Achilleus stayed angry” (II.768–69), the Achaian victory would not have been possible without both of them. Had it not been for Ajax’s steadfast pursuit of honor and resulting leadership during Achilles’s absence from the war, there would have been no Achaian force left for furious Achilles to lead back into battle. Ajax’s devotion to honor—from which he is never distracted by thoughts of a particular friend, home, family, or the pleasures of a long life—drives him to be unfalteringly courageous in battle. Not simply a powerful individual warrior, in his enthusiasm for achievement on the battlefield, Ajax cooperates seamlessly with his fellow warriors and inspires them to fight more effectively and more courageously than they would or could without his leadership.2 Through simple Ajax, rather than through the complex Achilles, the promise of love of honor to the political alliance of which Ajax is a crucial element most clearly emerges.

Because he leads only twelve ships, it is clear that Ajax’s status does not stem from the size of the army he commands (II.557–58).3 Instead, Ajax’s preeminence stems from individual merit: Homer often places emphasis on this by describing Ajax as the warrior who “for his beauty and the work of his hands surpassed all other Danaans, after the blameless [Achilles]” (XVII.279–80).4 Ajax’s performance supports at least this much praise. Homer most frequently uses the epithet “wall” (or “bulwark”) for Ajax, tallest of the warriors of the Trojan War.5 When he accepts Hektor’s challenge to single combat, Ajax’s appearance—before the fight even begins—is enough to set both the Trojan troops and Hektor trembling (VII.208–25). Even in a rare moment of retreat, the Trojan blows against Ajax are likened to the blows of children (XI.556–62). Ajax’s obvious physical advantages are complemented by consistently superlative skill and tireless courage. Whether in retreat or on the offensive, Ajax is nearly always wherever the battle is most critical and most dangerous, and he invariably comes when called to a point of particular weakness or to defend a wounded companion.6 Agamemnon confirms this observation, noting Ajax’s willingness to enter the first clash between the armies and honoring him for stepping into the most dangerous portion of the battle (IV.284–91).

What motivates Ajax to put his outstanding physical advantages and battle skills to work in the Trojan War? Why does he push forward in the most dire situations and take on the greatest challenges with a smile? In short, Ajax loves public honor, and the Trojan War provides an opportunity to win such honor. This motivation can be discerned in his bearing, emotions, and speeches. Moreover, once Ajax’s love of honor is observed, the strength and single-mindedness of that love of honor likewise becomes apparent. If he fights for glory, then the extremity of the danger that he is willing—happy even—to face demonstrates the strength of his love.

A hero of relatively few words, Ajax’s speeches are infrequent and short. Because they are so few, one of his terse comments indicates more about his desires than a dozen speeches from Achilles or indeed many of Homer’s main characters—nearly all of whom are more verbose than Ajax. A few speeches, therefore, must serve to establish his motivation. Yet, because his behavior is completely consistent with his speech and neither his speech nor his behavior so much as hint at any conflicting desire or even distracting thoughts, the case for Ajax’s dedication to honor is strong.

Ajax’s desire to win glory—not merely his ability to do so—begins to show itself as he prepares to face Hektor in single combat. Ajax does not immediately volunteer to accept Hektor’s challenge,7 but once his lot is chosen, his words and manner exhibit great joy at the prospect of winning the glory that would accompany defeating Hektor.

[H]e saw his mark on the lot, and knew it, and his heart

was gladdened.

He threw it down on the ground beside his foot, and spoke

to them:

“See, friends, the lot is mine, and I myself am made happy in my heart, since I think I can win over brilliant Hektor.”

(VII.189–92)

In the ensuing combat, which Ajax joins with a (literal) smile on his face, he knocks Hektor from his feet, but he does not kill Hektor before the combatants agree (at Hektor’s request) to stop for darkness (VII.212, 248–82). As Hektor returns to Troy, happy to have escaped with his life, Ajax reaps the honor accorded his courage. First, the Achaian army honors him: “the strong-greaved Achaians led Aias, happy in his victory, to great Agamemnon” (VII.311–12). Then Agamemnon honors Ajax prominently in the feast that follows by giving him “in honour the long cuts of the chine’s portion” (VII.321–22).

Although generally a warrior of few words, when Ajax encourages his fellow Achaians in battle he articulates his understanding of the honor that is at stake. He makes explicit that they risk their lives for the sake of the honor to be won (and the shame to be avoided).

Dear friends, be men; let shame be in your hearts, and

discipline,

and have consideration for each other in the strong encounters,

since more come through alive when men consider each

other,

and there is no glory when they give way, nor warcraft either.

(XV.561–64)

Friends and fighting men of the Danaans, henchman of Ares,

be men now, dear friends, remember your furious valour.

(XV.733–34)

Friends, there is no glory for us if we go back again

to our hollow ships, but here and now let the black earth

open

gaping for all; this would soon be far better for us.

(XVII.415–19)

As Ajax continues to fight, he reminds his comrades of the necessity of putting themselves wholeheartedly into this fight—even though death may result. Glory is on one hand and shame on the other. Their reputations as men are on the line, and they must risk their lives in full battle fury if they are to retain them.

Ajax lives by his own words, consistently remaining in the most dangerous place in battle and thus demonstrating that he has earned the honor that Agamemnon meticulously affords him.8 This is most evident in Ajax’s defense of the ships during the near defeat of the Achaians before Patroklos enters the battle—one of the most impressive and most dangerous feats of the Iliad. While Achilles remains withdrawn, torn between his competing desires, Ajax proves vital to Achaian survival as he first defends their ramparts, then protects the ships, and finally fights fire from the decks. During this portion of the battle, Ajax demonstrates repeatedly that but for his courage and skill the war would have then been lost.9 Even when he finally retreats, Homer makes it clear that Ajax’s retreat reflects the sheer force of the enemy and not cowardice: “Their volleys were too much for Aias, who could hold no longer his place, but had to give back a little, expecting to die there” (XV.727–28).10 In retreat, Ajax’s importance becomes yet clearer: only when he gives way can the Trojans finally set the first ship afire.

Ajax is most obviously perceived as “Ajax the wall,” defending those who are behind him and putting himself into the most dangerous positions as he pursues the honor that Agamemnon and indeed his companions of all ranks lavish on him. The text is replete with evidence of this quality, from his unfailing willingness to face the greatest place of danger in battle to his choice for the beaching of his own ships in the most vulnerable position on one extreme of the Achaian flank. In the brilliance of this courage and individual prowess, however, it is easy to overlook the skill with which he cooperates with his fellow warriors and inspires them to pursue glory with him. Despite his superiority in size and battle skill, it may be this teamwork—if such a modern term can be forgiven—in which he most surpasses his peers. This quality is most obviously evident in Ajax’s willingness to move about a battle to wherever his companions tell him he is needed. When Patroklos falls, Ajax works with Menelaus and others to assure the defense of Patroklos’s body (XVII.113–236).11 When Odysseus is injured and Menelaus calls for Ajax’s aid, Ajax steps forward to fight beside Menelaus (XI.472–87). When the Achaians are driven to their ramparts, Ajax responds to his fellow warriors’ call to come to the most vulnerable portion of the defenses (XII.329–69).

Less obvious than Ajax’s unfailing compliance when called to protect a vulnerable warrior or point in the Achaian line is the skill with which he commands and executes intricate tactical teamwork. While it is not unusual in the Iliad for warriors to cooperate by defending the wounded, managing horses or a chariot, assisting with armament, retreating from the field, or calling encouragement to one another, Ajax does more than this. Consider the intricate, offensive teamwork with which he cooperates with his illegitimate brother, Teukros.

[A]nd ninth came Teukros, bending into position the

curved bow,

and took his place in the shelter of Telamonian Aias’

shield, as Aias lifted the shield to take him. The hero

would watch, whenever in the throng he had struck some

man with an arrow,

and as the man dropped and died where he was stricken,

the archer

would run back again, like a child to the arms of his mother,

to Aias, who would hide him in the glittering shield’s

protection. (VIII.266–72)

Teukros continues, striking down eight Trojans in rapid succession and then proceeding to hit another handful in an attempt to kill Hektor. When Hektor finally wounds Teukros—having found a weak moment in Teukros’s timing with Ajax—Ajax moves smoothly from providing the shield necessary for his half brother’s attacks to ensuring that Teukros lives to fight another day.

Aias

was not forgetful of his fallen brother, but running

stood bestriding him and covered him under the great

shield. …

[T]wo staunch companions, stooping beneath it, caught up

Teukros

and carried him, groaning heavily, to the hollow vessels.

(VIII.330–34)

Later, while defending the Achaian ramparts, Ajax and Teukros nearly defeat Zeus’s son Sarpedon using the same tactic (XII.400–405; see also XV.437–83).

Although this intricate coordination far outstrips the teamwork of the Iliad’s most prominent Achaian brothers (Menelaus and Agamemnon), one might wonder whether their teamwork arises from their relationship as half brothers.12 This explanation seems unlikely because Ajax’s particular ability to coordinate his actions with others manifests with many companions with whom he has no family relationship, including Menelaus, Lesser Ajax, and a host of warriors of lesser prominence. Ajax appears to have no particular friend; instead, he regards every Achaian with whom he fights as a brother or friend. For example, when Ajax and Lesser Ajax fight side by side, Homer compares their cooperation to that of a pair of oxen (XIII.703–8).13 Books later, the Ajaxes work seamlessly together again, this time to defend Patroklos’s body. Ajax commands his peers, coordinates their actions in the midst of chaos, and—perhaps most importantly—inspires intricate cooperation in the heat of battle.

All you have said, Menelaos, is fair and orderly.

But come: you and Meriones stoop and shoulder the body

at once, and carry it out of the hard fighting. Behind you

we two shall fight off the Trojans and glorious Hektor,

we, who have the same name, the same spirit, and who in

times past

have stood fast beside each other in the face ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction: Human Excellence in Homer
• Part I The Iliad
• Part II The Odyssey
• Conclusion: Homer’s Hero
• Notes
• Bibliography
• Index
• Back Cover