Handbook of Online Learning

Kjell Erik Rudestam, Judith Schoenholtz-Read

• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc
• Year: 2009
• ISBN:
  9781483342931
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Bildung
• Subtopic: Bildungstechnologie

The Handbook of Online Learning is a comprehensive reference text for teachers and administrators of online courses and programs. It presents a discussion of the conceptual and theoretical foundations of online learning along with an exploration of practical implementation strategies. New and Ongoing Features

• Emphasizes interactive teaching/learning strategies – challenging readers to think differently about pedagogy
• Provides a strong theoretical base before discussing applications: Part I first presents the changing philosophies and theories of learning, while Part II covers implementation or the practice of online learning
• Offers several chapters that deal with the issues related to the growing corporate online learning environment
• Includes twelve NEW articles on the latest issues such as psychology of online learning, training faculty, digital libraries, ethical dimensions in online learning, legal issues, course management systems and evolving technologies. key articles retained from current edition are revised and updated to reflect current trends and changes in the field

Praise for the First Edition "The Fielding Institute authors apply an impressive wealth of organizational management theory and experience in their analyses of computer-mediated teaching and learning. The result is an enjoyable-to-read, fresh and lively book, delivering an abundance of ideas about how to establish a supportive learning environment, design a well structured course and manage electronically mediated dialog, -- in other words, how to successfully facilitate learning in the new context of on-line distance education."
—Michael G. Moore, Pennsylvania State University and Editor, The American Journal of Distance Education

"This book is a fascinating, comprehensive, revealing array of information about online learning. It is full of practical applications and significant implications for a future where online learning will play an increasingly larger role. It is essential for any library keeping up on online learning innovations."
—Dr. Bernard J. Luskin, President and Co-CEO, GlobalLearningSystems, Inc. Visiting Professor, Claremont Graduate University

"This book not only is that rare breed that addresses online learning in both higher education and corporate environments but every chapter is intriguing, informative, and accurately grounded. This book provides a comprehensive, timely, and informative look at online learning in higher education and corporate training settings. For an update on the state of e-learning in educational and training environments, simply read this book."
—Curtis J. Bonk, Ph.D., Indiana University and Courseshare.com

"Business and Learning have enjoyed a symbiotic relationship in our culture. The pace of change, however, has created separation between these two vital elements. The "Handbook of Online Learning" showcases the latest thinking and applications in learning delivery, and offers real promise that the gap is being bridged."
—D.M. Verkest, AT&T Wireless Services, Vice-President-National Operations

"The authors of this book are all experienced distance educators who know what the issues are: How are people engaged in teaching and learning at a distance "present" to one another? How do you create a community in the class? How can a teacher deal with an obstreperous student? What are the teaching/learning environments in universities and corporations as they affect distance education? The essays in this book inhabit the border where the idea of distance education meets the reality. The give practical advice and provide examples informed by both theory and experience."
— Stanley Chodorow, Professor Emeritus, University of California, San Diego & Former CEO, California Virtual University

Chapter 1

The Flourishing of Adult Online Education

An Overview

Kjell Erik Rudestam

Judith Schoenholtz-Read

What is important is to keep learning, to enjoy challenge, and to tolerate ambiguity. In the end there are no certain answers.

—Matina Horner

The primary purpose of this handbook is to clarify the conceptual issues that underlie effective online teaching and to offer practical guidance to educators and trainers who plan to establish or teach in a virtual environment (VE). The chapters in the book are written by experts in the field who share their experiences and suggestions for working effectively in this medium. If there is one central tenet to this handbook, it is this: The adoption of the online environment as the teaching vehicle of the future in higher education and corporate training demands a reexamination of our core beliefs about pedagogy and how students learn. It challenges us to find new ways to evaluate learning and to confront the professional and ethical issues that emerge from working in this new environment. It forces us to figure out how to use rapidly changing technologies to enhance learning. Although the transfer of classroom-based learning into cyberspace at first appeared to be deceptively simple, we have discovered that doing so without an appreciation for the nuances and implications of learning online ignores not only its potential but also the inevitable realities of entering it. Before we tackle a discussion of the pedagogy itself, as well as significant changes that have emerged in recent years, we need to provide a context for this educational revolution.

A Brief History of Early Computer-Assisted and Web-Based Instruction

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The history of computer-assisted instruction, which first attempted to use timesharing computers during the 1960s, is clearly described by Harasim and her colleagues (Harasim, Hiltz, Teles, & Turoff, 1995). Communication took place over dumb terminals connected to mainframe computers or dial-up telephone lines. In 1969, the U.S. government experimented with dedicated telephone lines for data exchange by constructing the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) to connect researchers with remote computer centers to share resources. It was not long before these researchers wanted to exchange messages with one another about their projects. The electronic mail (e-mail) function was born and became immensely popular. Other communication networks (e.g., USENET, BITNET, CSNET) followed, still predominantly connecting researchers and scientists. Eventually, the Internet, a global network of networks, supplanted these individual efforts.

Murray Turoff is given credit for designing the first computer conferencing system in 1970 (Hiltz & Turoff, 1993). Today, of course, there are many conferencing systems available that support discussion as well as a myriad of more sophisticated features. Bulletin boards, a common space for posting messages over the computer, were developed during the late 1970s (Sterling, 1992) but did not proliferate until a decade later. Both of these functions are at the heart of the implementation of computer networks for training and education. Computer conferencing systems were applied to course activity in higher education during the 1980s and remain a prominent feature of online education today. All of these variants have found their way into higher education in the public and private sectors.

Distance Learning Terminology

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One of the difficulties in obtaining a clear sense of the literature on online learning is the multiplicity of terms used to describe the phenomenon. Commonly employed terms include distance learning, distributed learning, online learning, computer-mediated learning, and e-learning.

Some educational institutions conceived their mandate as training students who are geographically dispersed from one another and from the institutions themselves. They represent what has historically been known as distance education. According to the U.S. Congress for Technology Assessment, distance education refers to the “linking of a teacher and students in several geographic locations via technology that allows for interaction” (Daniel & Stevens, 1998, p. 162). However, many distance learning institutions that have come to adopt a strong online presence were functioning prior to the Internet by relying on individually directed study, mail, telephone, and/or infrequent residential sessions for contact between students and instructors.

One example is the United Kingdom’s Open University, which initiated use of computer conferencing as a small adjunct to a large multimedia course (Harasim et al., 1995). Course tutors held discussion groups in closed conferences with relatively small numbers of students. Interestingly, the computer conferencing forum that was open to all students and tutors purely for socializing purposes generated the most traffic and became the most productive workspace. This unanticipated outcome, as we shall see, has had significant implications for practitioners of online education. Another example, with which we are more personally acquainted and which serves as the source of much of our experience with online teaching, is the Fielding Graduate University based in Santa Barbara, California. Fielding, as is true for a few other academic institutions such as the Union Graduate School, Empire State College, and the University Without Walls, established a distance education model many years ago to provide an educational opportunity for a group of geographically dispersed, adult, mid-career professionals who could not easily give up their family and work responsibilities to move to a campus-based institution for a lengthy period of time. Today, Fielding offers graduate degree programs in clinical psychology, human and organizational behavior, and educational leadership. Each program has its own unique blend of online and face-to-face seminars and tutorial experiences. In many cases, students take courses as asynchronous and/or synchronous online seminars. A few of the chapters in this handbook illustrate the ways in which these online programs and courses are structured and taught.

As indicated above, adherence to a distance model of training does not necessarily imply the adoption of an online teaching environment. Because the term distance education has traditionally implied delivery of instruction or course materials over a distance, educators who support a model of education that emphasizes student initiated access to learning resources have recommended the use of the term distributed learning or flexible learning rather than distance learning to refer to new forms of online learning (Carr-Chellman & Duchastel, 2000). Distance education institutions have not necessarily embraced online learning, but when they have done so, the transition to a communication-based technology has often gone more smoothly because of the overlap of values and skills required to succeed in the virtual setting. As described later in this chapter, other distance education programs have been established solely online.

Perhaps the favored term in the literature today for designating courses and programs offered over the Internet is e-learning. E-learning has been defined by the Instructional Technology Council as “the process of extending learning or delivering instructional materials to remote sites via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio, video, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD-ROM” (Holsapple & Lee-Post, 2006, p. 2). Nonetheless, the term that most accurately describes the contemporary trend of incorporating distance technology and the Internet into the educational process is blended learning. Blended learning refers to an amalgamation of face-to-face learning and online learning. The other term that is frequently used in this context is hybrid learning, again referring to the possibility of combining face-to-face and online modalities, either within the same course or across courses or programs within the same institution.

A predictable risk in the face-to-face educational environment is a disproportionate focus and responsibility on the teacher, whereas a common risk in the online environment is lack of structure and organizational coherence because the objective is for students to become self-directed (Garrison & Vaughn, 2008). In our experience, some topics or courses are taught most efficaciously in a face-to-face format, while others are more suited to an online format. The combination of both formats within the same course or program allows for capitalizing on the advantages of each approach. Moreover, the availability of both formats allows for sensitivity to the diverse learning styles and needs of different students.

Osguthorpe and Graham (2003) have argued that the rationale for adopting a blended system is that it allows for pedagogical richness, access to knowledge, social interaction, personal agency, cost-effectiveness, and ease of revision. In a 2003 survey, 80% of undergraduate and graduate higher education institutions were found to be offering blended learning courses (Arabasz & Baker, 2003). Perhaps one reason for the burgeoning popularity of the hybrid model is that the current generation of students moves effortlessly between face-to-face and online environments; they were weaned on the Internet, and the online milieu serves as a second family (Taffel, 2000) for them. At the same, Garrison and Vaughan (2008) have pointed out that although this generation of students is very open to computer-mediated education and value social interactions and collaborative learning, they also view the instructor as a critical element of the learning experience and are apprehensive that technology will reduce communication between students and faculty. These authors believe that a “tipping point” has been reached for the dominance of blended learning in higher education and that the roots of this movement are technological, financial, and pedagogical. We concur.

Current Status of Online Learning Programs

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Nearly every institution of higher learning has incorporated or intends to incorporate some aspects of online technology into its curriculum delivery system. The way in which online technology becomes operationalized, however, differs significantly among institutions. At this time, there appear to be three major forms of computer-networked technology, or Internet-based learning, in education: 1) Web facilitated with less than 30% of the content online—this is a face-to-face course that has moved online with the help of a course management system (CMS), 2) a blended or hybrid course that uses both face-to-face and substantial online content, and 3) a fully online course with most of the content online (Allen & Seaman, 2006). Each of these options can be seen in traditional educational institutions and corporate training programs.

Some institutions were created after the advent of the Internet, and many of them were designed to offer classes, programs, and degrees exclusively online. While many of these programs have closed, others are incredibly successful in the marketplace. Smith and Mitry (2008) have been particularly vocal in terms of questioning the integrity of some selected for-profit institutions that are drawn to computer-based learning solely for cost advantages and are willing to sacrifice educational quality by, for example, hiring underqualified faculty as instructors or facilitators of their online courses. In a more general sense, it is our impression that organizations that gravitate to the online environment exclusively for financial reasons are apt to be disappointed. As Levy (2005) has put it, some proponents of online learning have focused on accessing a greater number of students rather than on serving current students in a better way.

Market Issues and Demographics

Hanna and Associates (2000) cited consumer demand as the key factor creating new forms of distance learning. The demand comes from the need for, and interest in, increased student access, lifelong learning, and professional and work-related training. Drucker (1999) highlighted the need for knowledge workers of the future to have the ability to update their skills quickly and to take responsibility for their learning. In part due to changing demographics, the globalization of the workforce, and the aging and increasing professionalization of the population, adult students are returning to school, driven by their own developmental interests and by the requirements of their employers. The pressure to respond to the desire for just-in-time learning is a powerful force for change. Some institutions are more capable of responding than others, and new approaches to learning continue to emerge.

According to the Sloane Consortium’s annual surveys on the state of online learning in the United States, the enormous growth in online enrollments has begun to stabilize but will continue at a higher level than traditional classroom-based enrollments (Allen & Seaman, 2005; Allen & Seaman, 2007). The number of online students increased at an annual rate of 9.6%, whereas the classroom-based enrollments increased by only 1.5%. This difference is expected to continue. The results of the Sloane 2007 survey indicate that about 35% of higher education institutions have three quarters of the online enrollments (Allen & Seaman, 2007). If we look at the type of institutions with the largest numbers of online students, the 2-year associate colleges have the highest level of engagement in online learning (62%). Masters or doctoral research institutions have lower rates of engagement, followed by the baccalaureate schools. The smallest private colleges and universities are the least engaged in online learning. In total, online students comprise about 20% of all students (Allen & Seaman, 2007). These figures suggest that the future bodes well for online enrollments. However, it is unlikely that many new institutions will enter the field.

Corporate universities are growing faster than higher education (Hearn, 2001; Urdan & Weggen, 2000). These “universities” focus on educating their employees to improve the quality of the globally distributed workforce and to maintain the corporate culture. Corporate training programs have used learning management systems (LMS) or more recently, content management tools and blended formats. In a 2008 survey conducted by the American Society for Training and Development’s (ASTD) Learning Circuits (Learning Circuits, 2008), companies reported using e-learning for training in business skills, task specific skills, desktop applications, and regulatory and compliance issues. Reported problems with e-learning were related to cost and employee buy-in, technical competency, and time commitment. Some corporate universities have partnered with traditional universities to offer online degree opportunities to employees. For example, United Health developed United Health Learning Institute in collaboration with Renselaer Polytechnic Institute to offer degree programs to employees. As well, the U.S. military provided over 50 online degree programs to more than 30,000 service men and women through the American Public University System and the American Military University in 2008 (www.apus.edu). However, not all institutions have joined the Internet bandwagon. The Sloane Consortium (Allen & Seaman, 2007) found that smaller public colleges and universities tend not to have online learning as part of their strategic plans. Perhaps this is due to the continuing perception among their faculty that online learning is not as effective as classroom-based learning. Resistance to online teaching has been attributed to faculty lack of confidence, feelings of loss, and lack of awareness of and training in new approaches (Panitz & Panitz, 1998). Others fear for the demise of the university as we know it. Talbott (1998) cited the apprehension of faculty who are currently at the center of traditional teaching and learning models and who anticipate a loss of status and power. Noble (1999), for example, argued that higher education is being commercialized and that teaching is becoming a commodity that steals the faculty’s control, knowledge, skill, and livelihood.

Fears have morphed into other issues. Students entrenched in the digital society have changing expectations about the relationship between learning and technology. Successful operation of new technology can lead to a greater sense of knowledge and efficacy, but failure can evoke feelings of stupidity and ineptitude. There are also built-in paradoxes to the technology itself. What seems radically new and innovative one day becomes old and obsolete the next day. What appears to provide remarkable savings in efficiency and cost-effective service can inefficiently consume huge amounts of time and attention. Naïve expectations that online learning is financially rewarding have been disappointed. What is experienced as fulfilling can easily become a craving for more and better technology. The interface of technology with pedagogy gives rise to complex struggles. What has the potential for assimilating and joining people together on any number of topics and experiences can easily lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation.

University administrators attribute the growth of their online programs to student demand. Online programs increase access to education for students who are nontraditional and are unable to attend classroom-based environments. This fulfills a significant mission for man...