The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods
eBook - ePub

The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods

  1. 2,064 pages
  2. English
  3. ePUB (mobile friendly)
  4. Available on iOS & Android
eBook - ePub

The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods

About this book

Communication research is evolving and changing in a world of online journals, open-access, and new ways of obtaining data and conducting experiments via the Internet.  Although there are generic encyclopedias describing basic social science research methodologies in general, until now there has been no comprehensive A-to-Z reference work exploring methods specific to communication and media studies.  Our entries, authored by key figures in the field, focus on special considerations when applied specifically to communication research, accompanied by engaging examples from the literature of communication, journalism, and media studies.  Entries cover every step of the research process, from the creative development of research topics and questions to literature reviews, selection of best methods (whether quantitative, qualitative, or mixed) for analyzing research results and publishing research findings, whether in traditional media or via new media outlets.   In addition to expected entries covering the basics of theories and methods traditionally used in communication research, other entries discuss important trends influencing the future of that research, including contemporary practical issues students will face in communication professions, the influences of globalization on research, use of new recording technologies in fieldwork, and the challenges and opportunities related to studying online multi-media environments.  Email, texting, cellphone video, and blogging are shown not only as topics of research but also as means of collecting and analyzing data.  Still other entries delve into considerations of accountability, copyright, confidentiality, data ownership and security, privacy, and other aspects of conducting an ethical research program. 

Features:

  • 652 signed entries are contained in an authoritative work spanning four volumes available in choice of electronic or print formats.
  • Although organized A-to-Z, front matter includes a Reader's Guide grouping entries thematically to help students interested in a specific aspect of communication research to more easily locate directly related entries.
  • Back matter includes a Chronology of the development of the field of communication research; a Resource Guide to classic books, journals, and associations; a Glossary introducing the terminology of the field; and a detailed Index.
  • Entries conclude with References/Further Readings and Cross-References to related entries to guide students further in their research journeys.
  • The Index, Reader's Guide themes, and Cross-References combine to provide robust search-and-browse in the e-version.

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Table of contents

  1. Cover
  2. Half Title
  3. Editorial Board
  4. Title Page
  5. Copyright Page
  6. Contents
  7. About the Editor
  8. Contributors
  9. Introduction
  10. Publisher Note
  11. A
  12. Abstract or Executive Summary
  13. Academic Journal Structure
  14. Academic Journals
  15. Acculturation
  16. Acknowledging the Contribution of Others
  17. Activism and Social Justice
  18. African American Communication and Culture
  19. Agenda Setting
  20. Alternative Conference Presentation Formats
  21. Alternative News Media
  22. American Psychological Association (APA) Style
  23. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
  24. Analysis of Ranks
  25. Analysis of Residuals
  26. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
  27. Analytic Induction
  28. Anonymous Source of Data
  29. Applied Communication
  30. Archival Analysis
  31. Archive Searching for Research
  32. Archiving Data
  33. Argumentation Theory
  34. Artifact Selection
  35. Asian/Pacific American Communication Studies
  36. Association of Internet Researchers
  37. Attenuation
  38. Authoring: Telling a Research Story
  39. Authorship Bias
  40. Authorship Credit
  41. Autoethnography
  42. Autoregressive, Integrative, Moving Average (ARIMA) Models
  43. Average Effect, Estimation of
  44. Axial Coding
  45. B
  46. Bad News, Communication of
  47. Basic Course in Communication
  48. Between-Subjects Design
  49. Bibliographic Research
  50. Binomial Effect Size Display
  51. Bivariate Statistics
  52. Block Analysis
  53. Blocking Variable
  54. Blogs and Microblogs
  55. Blogs and Research
  56. Body Image and Eating Disorders
  57. Bonferroni Correction
  58. Bootstrapping
  59. Burkean Analysis
  60. Business Communication
  61. C
  62. Case Study
  63. Categorization
  64. Causality
  65. Ceiling and Floor Effects
  66. Chat Rooms
  67. Chicago Style
  68. Chi-Square
  69. Citation Analyses
  70. Citations to Research
  71. Close Reading
  72. Cloze Procedure
  73. Cluster Analysis
  74. Coding, Fixed
  75. Coding, Flexible
  76. Coding of Data
  77. Cohen’s Kappa
  78. Cohort
  79. Communication and Aging Research
  80. Communication and Culture
  81. Communication and Evolution
  82. Communication and Future Studies
  83. Communication and Human Biology
  84. Communication and Technology
  85. Communication Apprehension
  86. Communication Assessment
  87. Communication Competence
  88. Communication Education
  89. Communication Ethics
  90. Communication History
  91. Communication Journals
  92. Communication Privacy Management Theory
  93. Communication Skills
  94. Communication Theory
  95. Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software
  96. Computer-Mediated Communication
  97. Confederates
  98. Confidence Interval
  99. Confidentiality and Anonymity of Participants
  100. Conflict, Mediation, and Negotiation
  101. Conflict of Interest in Research
  102. Conjoint Analysis
  103. Content Analysis: Advantages and Disadvantages
  104. Content Analysis, Definition of
  105. Content Analysis, Process of
  106. Contrast Analysis
  107. Control Groups
  108. Controversial Experiments
  109. Conversation Analysis
  110. Copyright Issues in Research
  111. Corporate Communication
  112. Correlation, Pearson
  113. Correlation, Point-Biserial
  114. Correlation, Spearman
  115. Correspondence Analysis
  116. Counterbalancing
  117. Covariance/Variance Matrix
  118. Covariate
  119. Covert Observation
  120. Cramér’s V
  121. Crisis Communication
  122. Critical Analysis
  123. Critical Ethnography
  124. Critical Incident Method
  125. Critical Race Theory
  126. Critical Theory
  127. Cronbach’s Alpha
  128. Cross Validation
  129. Cross-Cultural Communication
  130. Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis
  131. Cross-Sectional Design
  132. Cultural Sensitivity in Research
  133. Cultural Studies and Communication
  134. Curvilinear Relationship
  135. Cutoff Scores
  136. Cyberchondria
  137. D
  138. Dark Side of Communication
  139. Data
  140. Data Cleaning
  141. Data Reduction
  142. Data Security
  143. Data Transformation
  144. Data Trimming
  145. Databases, Academic
  146. Debate and Forensics
  147. Debriefing of Participants
  148. Deception in Research
  149. Decomposing Sums of Squares
  150. Degrees of Freedom
  151. Delayed Measurement
  152. Demand Characteristics
  153. Development of Communication in Children
  154. Diaries
  155. Diaspora
  156. Dichotomization of Continuous Variable
  157. Digital Media and Race
  158. Digital Natives
  159. Dime Dating
  160. Disability and Communication
  161. Discourse Analysis
  162. Discriminant Analysis
  163. Discussion Section
  164. Distance Learning
  165. Duncan Test
  166. E
  167. Educational Technology
  168. Effect Sizes
  169. Emergency Communication
  170. Empathic Listening
  171. English as a Second Language
  172. Environmental Communication
  173. Error Term
  174. Errors of Measurement
  175. Errors of Measurement: Attenuation
  176. Errors of Measurement: Ceiling and Floor Effects
  177. Errors of Measurement: Dichotomization of a Continuous Variable
  178. Errors of Measurement: Range Restriction
  179. Errors of Measurement: Regression Toward the Mean
  180. Eta Squared
  181. Ethical Issues, International Research
  182. Ethics Codes and Guidelines
  183. Ethnographic Interview
  184. Ethnography
  185. Ethnomethodology
  186. Evidence-Based Policy Making
  187. Ex Post Facto Designs
  188. Experience Sampling Method
  189. Experimental Manipulation
  190. Experiments and Experimental Design
  191. External Validity
  192. Extraneous Variables, Control of
  193. F
  194. Facial Action Coding System
  195. Factor, Crossed
  196. Factor, Fixed
  197. Factor, Nested
  198. Factor, Random
  199. Factor Analysis
  200. Factor Analysis: Confirmatory
  201. Factor Analysis: Evolutionary
  202. Factor Analysis: Exploratory
  203. Factor Analysis: Internal Consistency
  204. Factor Analysis: Oblique Rotation
  205. Factor Analysis: Parallelism Test
  206. Factor Analysis: Rotated Matrix
  207. Factor Analysis: Varimax Rotation
  208. Factorial Analysis of Variance
  209. Factorial Designs
  210. False Negative
  211. False Positive
  212. Family Communication
  213. Fantasy Theme Analysis
  214. Feminist Analysis
  215. Feminist Communication Studies
  216. Field Experiments
  217. Field Notes
  218. Film Studies
  219. Financial Communication
  220. First-Wave Feminism
  221. Fisher Narrative Paradigm
  222. Fixed Effect Analysis
  223. Fleiss System
  224. Focus Groups
  225. Foundation and Government Research Collections
  226. Frame Analysis
  227. Fraudulent and Misleading Data
  228. Freedom of Expression
  229. Frequency Distributions
  230. Funding of Research
  231. G
  232. Game Studies
  233. Garfinkeling
  234. Gender and Communication
  235. Gender-Specific Language
  236. Generalization
  237. GeoMedia
  238. GLBT Communication Studies
  239. GLBT People and Social Media
  240. Grounded Theory
  241. Group Communication
  242. H
  243. Health Care Disparities
  244. Health Communication
  245. Health Literacy
  246. Hermeneutics
  247. Heterogeneity of Variance
  248. Heteroskedasticity
  249. Hierarchical Linear Modeling
  250. Hierarchical Model
  251. Historical Analysis
  252. Holsti Method
  253. Homogeneity of Variance
  254. Human Subjects, Treatment of
  255. Human–Computer Interaction
  256. Hypothesis Formulation
  257. Hypothesis Testing, Logic of
  258. I
  259. Ideographs
  260. Imagined Interactions
  261. Implicit Measures
  262. Individual Difference
  263. Induction
  264. Informant Interview
  265. Informants
  266. Informed Consent
  267. Institutional Review Board
  268. Instructional Communication
  269. Interaction Analysis, Qualitative
  270. Interaction Analysis, Quantitative
  271. Intercoder Reliability
  272. Intercoder Reliability Coefficients, Comparison of
  273. Intercoder Reliability Standards: Reproducibility
  274. Intercoder Reliability Standards: Stability
  275. Intercoder Reliability Techniques: Cohen’s Kappa
  276. Intercoder Reliability Techniques: Fleiss System
  277. Intercoder Reliability Techniques: Holsti Method
  278. Intercoder Reliability Techniques: Krippendorff’s Alpha
  279. Intercoder Reliability Techniques: Percent Agreement
  280. Intercoder Reliability Techniques: Scott’s Pi
  281. Intercultural Communication
  282. Interdisciplinary Journals
  283. Intergenerational Communication
  284. Intergroup Communication
  285. Internal Validity
  286. International Communication
  287. International Film
  288. Internet as Cultural Context
  289. Internet Research, Privacy of Participants
  290. Internet Research and Ethical Decision Making
  291. Interpersonal Communication
  292. Interpretive Research
  293. Interviewees
  294. Interviews, Recording and Transcribing
  295. Interviews for Data Gathering
  296. Intraclass Correlation
  297. Intrapersonal Communication
  298. Invited Publication
  299. J
  300. Jealousy
  301. Journalism
  302. Journals
  303. K
  304. Kendall’s Tau
  305. Krippendorff’s Alpha
  306. Kruskal–Wallis Test
  307. Kuder–Richardson Formula
  308. L
  309. Laboratory Experiments
  310. Lag Sequential Analysis
  311. Lambda
  312. Language and Social Interaction
  313. Latin Square Design
  314. Latina/o Communication
  315. Leadership
  316. Least Significant Difference
  317. Legal Communication
  318. Library Research
  319. Limitations of Research
  320. Linear Regression
  321. Linear Versus Nonlinear Relationships
  322. Literature, Determining Quality of
  323. Literature, Determining Relevance of
  324. Literature Review
  325. Literature Review, The
  326. Literature Reviews, Foundational
  327. Literature Reviews, Resources for
  328. Literature Reviews, Strategies for
  329. Literature Search Issues
  330. Literature Sources, Skeptical and Critical Stance Toward
  331. Log-Linear Analysis
  332. Logistic Analysis
  333. Longitudinal Design
  334. M
  335. Managerial Communication
  336. Manipulation Check
  337. Margin of Error
  338. Markov Analysis
  339. Marxist Analysis
  340. Mass Communication
  341. Massive Multiplayer Online Games
  342. Massive Open Online Courses
  343. Matched Groups
  344. Matched Individuals
  345. Maximum Likelihood Estimation
  346. McNemar Test
  347. Mean, Arithmetic
  348. Mean, Geometric
  349. Mean, Harmonic
  350. Measurement Levels
  351. Measurement Levels, Interval
  352. Measurement Levels, Nominal/Categorical
  353. Measurement Levels, Ordinal
  354. Measurement Levels, Ratio
  355. Measures of Central Tendency
  356. Measures of Variability
  357. Media and Technology Studies
  358. Media Diffusion
  359. Media Effects Research
  360. Media Literacy
  361. Median
  362. Median Split of Sample
  363. Message Production
  364. Meta-Analysis
  365. Meta-Analysis: Estimation of Average Effect
  366. Meta-Analysis: Fixed-Effects Analysis
  367. Meta-Analysis: Literature Search Issues
  368. Meta-Analysis: Model Testing
  369. Meta-Analysis: Random Effects Analysis
  370. Meta-Analysis: Statistical Conversion to Common Metric
  371. Meta-Ethnography
  372. Metaphor Analysis
  373. Methodology, Selection of
  374. Methods Section
  375. Metrics for Analysis, Selection of
  376. Mixed Level Design
  377. M (Cont.)
  378. Mode
  379. Model Testing
  380. Modern Language Association (MLA) Style
  381. Mortality in Sample
  382. Multicollinearity
  383. Multiplatform Journalism
  384. Multiple Regression
  385. Multiple Regression: Block Analysis
  386. Multiple Regression: Covariates in Multiple Regression
  387. Multiple Regression: Multiple R
  388. Multiple Regression: Standardized and Raw Coefficients
  389. Multitrial Design
  390. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
  391. Multivariate Statistics
  392. N
  393. Narrative Analysis
  394. Narrative Interviewing
  395. Narrative Literature Review
  396. Native American or Indigenous Peoples Communication
  397. Naturalistic Observation
  398. Negative Case Analysis
  399. Neo-Aristotelian Criticism
  400. New Media Analysis
  401. New Media and Participant Observation
  402. News Media, Writing for
  403. Nonverbal Communication
  404. Normal Curve Distribution
  405. Null Hypothesis
  406. O
  407. Observational Measurement: Face Features
  408. Observational Measurement: Proxemics and Touch
  409. Observational Measurement: Vocal Qualities
  410. Observational Research, Advantages and Disadvantages
  411. Observational Research Methods
  412. Observer Reliability
  413. Odds Ratio
  414. One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design
  415. One-Tailed Test
  416. One-Way Analysis of Variance
  417. Online and Offline Data, Comparison of
  418. Online Communities
  419. Online Data, Collection and Interpretation of
  420. Online Data, Documentation of
  421. Online Data, Hacking of
  422. Online Interviews
  423. Online Learning
  424. Online Social Worlds
  425. Opinion Polling
  426. Ordinary Least Squares
  427. Organizational Communication
  428. Organizational Ethics
  429. Organizational Identification
  430. Orthogonality
  431. Outlier Analysis
  432. Overidentified Model
  433. P
  434. p value
  435. Panel Presentations and Discussions
  436. Parasocial Communication
  437. Parsimony
  438. Partial Correlation
  439. Participant Observation
  440. Passing Theory
  441. Path Analysis
  442. Patient-Centered Communication
  443. Pay to Review and/or Publish
  444. Peace Studies
  445. Peer Review
  446. Peer Reviewed Publication
  447. Pentadic Analysis
  448. Percent Agreement
  449. Performance Research
  450. Performance Studies
  451. Personal Relationship Studies
  452. Persuasion
  453. Phenomenological Traditions
  454. Phi Coefficient
  455. Philosophy of Communication
  456. Physiological Measurement
  457. Physiological Measurement: Blood Pressure
  458. Physiological Measurement: Genital Blood Volume
  459. Physiological Measurement: Heart Rate
  460. Physiological Measurement: Pupillary Response
  461. Physiological Measurement: Skin Conductance
  462. Pilot Study
  463. Plagiarism
  464. Plagiarism, Self-
  465. Poetic Analysis
  466. Politeness Theory
  467. Political Communication
  468. Political Debates
  469. Political Economy of Media
  470. Popular Communication
  471. Population/Sample
  472. Pornography and Research
  473. Postcolonial Communication
  474. Post Hoc Tests
  475. Post Hoc Tests: Duncan Multiple Range Test
  476. Post Hoc Tests: Least Significant Difference
  477. Post Hoc Test: Scheffe Test
  478. Post Hoc Tests: Student–Newman–Keuls Test
  479. Post Hoc Tests: Tukey Honestly Significant Difference Test
  480. Poster Presentation of Research
  481. Power Curves
  482. Power in Language
  483. Primary Data Analysis
  484. Privacy of Information
  485. Privacy of Participants
  486. Probit Analysis
  487. Professional Communication Organizations
  488. Program Assessment
  489. Pronomial Use and Solidarity
  490. Propaganda
  491. Psychoanalytic Approaches to Rhetoric
  492. Public Address
  493. Public Behavior, Recording of
  494. Public Memory
  495. Public Relations
  496. Publication, Politics of
  497. Publication Style Guides
  498. Publications, Open-Access
  499. Publications, Scholarly
  500. Publishing a Book
  501. Publishing Journal Articles
  502. Q
  503. Qualitative Data
  504. Quantitative Research, Purpose of
  505. Quantitative Research, Steps for
  506. Quasi-Experimental Design
  507. Quasi-F
  508. Queer Methods
  509. Queer Theory
  510. R
  511. Random Assignment
  512. Random Assignment of Participants
  513. Random Effects Analysis
  514. Range
  515. Raw Score
  516. Reaction Time
  517. Reality Television
  518. Regression to the Mean
  519. Relational Dialectics Theory
  520. Relationships Between Variables
  521. Reliability, Cronbach’s Alpha
  522. Reliability, Kuder-Richardson Formula
  523. Reliability, Split-Half
  524. Reliability, Unitizing
  525. Reliability of Measurement
  526. Religious Communication
  527. Repeated Measures
  528. Replication
  529. Reproducibility
  530. Research, Inspirations for
  531. Research Ethics and Social Values
  532. Research Ideas, Sources of
  533. Research Project, Planning of
  534. Research Proposal
  535. Research Question Formulation
  536. Research Reports, Objective
  537. Research Reports, Organization of
  538. Research Reports, Subjective
  539. Research Topic, Definition of
  540. Researcher–Participant Relationships
  541. Researcher–Participant Relationships in Observational Research
  542. Respondent Interviews
  543. Respondents
  544. Response Style
  545. Restriction in Range
  546. Results Section
  547. Rhetoric
  548. Rhetoric, Aristotle’s: Ethos
  549. Rhetoric, Aristotle’s: Logos
  550. Rhetoric, Aristotle’s: Pathos
  551. Rhetoric, Isocrates’
  552. Rhetoric as Epistemic
  553. Rhetorical and Dramatism Analysis
  554. Rhetorical Artifact
  555. Rhetorical Genre
  556. Rhetorical Leadership
  557. Rhetorical Method
  558. Rhetorical Theory
  559. Rigor
  560. Risk Communication
  561. Robotic Communication
  562. S
  563. Sample Versus Population
  564. Sampling, Determining Size
  565. Sampling, Internet
  566. Sampling, Methodological Issues in
  567. Sampling, Multistage
  568. Sampling, Nonprobability
  569. Sampling, Probability
  570. Sampling, Random
  571. Sampling, Special Population
  572. Sampling Decisions
  573. Sampling Frames
  574. Sampling Theory
  575. Scales, Forced Choice
  576. Scales, Likert Statement
  577. Scales, Open-Ended
  578. Scales, Rank Order
  579. Scales, Semantic Differential
  580. Scales, True/False
  581. Scaling, Guttman
  582. Scheffe Test
  583. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning
  584. Science Communication
  585. Scott’s Pi
  586. Search Engines for a Literature Search
  587. Secondary Data
  588. Second Wave Feminism
  589. Selective Exposure
  590. Semiotics
  591. Semi-Partial r
  592. Sensitivity Analysis
  593. Service Learning
  594. Significance Test
  595. Simple Bivariate Correlation
  596. Simple Descriptive Statistics
  597. Skewness
  598. Small Group Communication
  599. Snowball Subject Recruitment
  600. Sobel Test
  601. Social Cognition
  602. Social Constructionism
  603. Social Implications of Research
  604. Social Media: Blogs, Microblogs, and Twitter
  605. Social Network Analysis
  606. Social Network Systems
  607. Social Networks, Online
  608. Social Presence
  609. Social Relationships
  610. Solomon Four-Group Design
  611. Spam
  612. Spirituality and Communication
  613. Spontaneous Decision Making
  614. Sports Communication
  615. Stability
  616. Standard Deviation and Variance
  617. Standard Error
  618. Standard Error, Mean
  619. Standard Score
  620. Statistical Conversion to Common Metric
  621. Statistical Power Analysis
  622. Stimulus Pretest
  623. Strategic Communication
  624. Structural Equation Modeling
  625. Structuration Theory
  626. Student-Newman-Keuls Method
  627. Submission of Research to a Convention
  628. Submission of Research to a Journal
  629. Surrogacy
  630. Survey: Contrast Questions
  631. Survey: Demographic Questions
  632. Survey: Dichotomous Questions
  633. Survey: Filter Questions
  634. Survey: Follow-Up Questions
  635. Survey: Leading Questions
  636. Survey: Multiple-Choice Questions
  637. Survey: Negative-Wording Questions
  638. Survey: Open-Ended Questions
  639. Survey: Questionnaire
  640. Survey: Sampling Issues
  641. Survey: Structural Questions
  642. Survey Instructions
  643. Survey Questions, Writing and Phrasing Of
  644. Survey Response Rates
  645. Survey Wording
  646. Surveys, Advantages and Disadvantages of
  647. Surveys, Using Others’
  648. Symbolic Interactionism
  649. Synecdoche
  650. T
  651. Terministic Screens
  652. Terrorism
  653. Testability
  654. Textual Analysis
  655. Thematic Analysis
  656. Theoretical Traditions
  657. Third-Wave Feminism
  658. Time Series Analysis
  659. Time Series Notation
  660. Title of Manuscript, Selection of
  661. Training and Development
  662. Transcription Systems
  663. Treatment Groups
  664. Triangulation
  665. True Score
  666. t-Test
  667. t-Test, Independent Samples
  668. t-Test, One Sample
  669. t-Test, Paired Samples
  670. Tukey Test
  671. Turning Point Analysis
  672. Two-Group Pretest–Posttest Design
  673. Two-Group Random Assignment Pretest–Posttest Design
  674. Type I Error
  675. Type II Error
  676. U
  677. Underrepresented Groups
  678. Univariate Statistics
  679. Unobtrusive Analysis
  680. Unobtrusive Measurement
  681. V
  682. Validity, Concurrent
  683. Validity, Construct
  684. Validity, Face and Content
  685. Validity, Halo Effect
  686. Validity, Measurement of
  687. Validity, Predictive
  688. Variables, Categorical
  689. Variables, Conceptualization
  690. Variables, Continuous
  691. Variables, Control
  692. Variables, Defining
  693. Variables, Dependent
  694. Variables, Independent
  695. Variables, Interaction of
  696. Variables, Latent
  697. Variables, Marker
  698. Variables, Mediating Types
  699. Variables, Moderating Types
  700. Variables, Operationalization
  701. Video Games
  702. Visual Communication Studies
  703. Visual Images as Data Within Qualitative Research
  704. Visual Materials, Analysis Of
  705. Vote Counting Literature Review Methods
  706. Vulnerable Groups
  707. W
  708. Wartime Communication
  709. Within-Subjects Design
  710. Writer’s Block
  711. Writing a Discussion Section
  712. Writing a Literature Review
  713. Writing a Methods Section
  714. Writing a Results Section
  715. Writing Process, The
  716. Z
  717. Z Score
  718. Z Transformation
  719. Appendix A Modern History of the Discipline of Communication
  720. Appendix B Resource Guide
  721. Index