School Social Work

A Direct Practice Guide

JoAnn Jarolmen

• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781483322155
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education Counseling

School Social Work: A Direct Practice Guide is a text for courses in school social work. It covers the foundations of working with children and adolescents in schools, applying practice knowledge to the special school and population settings. The main goal of this text is to a provide hands on and practical experience for students studying to become school social workers. Each chapter will review a basic concept and then use two in-depth activities to apply the concepts to practice. It will be closely aligned with the EPAS standards and will have a strong focus on evidence based interventions, critical thinking, and diversity. The books will cover the following topics: Typical day in the life of a school social work; Introduction, special topics, and skills and techniques; special education; collaboration and school consultation; diversity; current issues in education; policy and evaluation; case studies and global issues.

Chapter 1_________________________________

AN OVERVIEW OF THE THEORETICAL INFORMATION NECESSARY IN THE FIELD OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK

A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN SCHOOLS

The history of school social work is about 100 years old in the United States. It can be followed along three paths of history: the socioenvironmental, the professional, and the legal histories. It can be chronicled by situations that occur in the environment, educational, or societal as well as the historical and legal decisions that have occurred.

Socioenvironmental

After the inception of compulsory education (that is, when the law mandated that children receive an education) at the beginning of the 20th century, which was created through individual state enactments, social work services began in schools with a focus on attendance and academic achievement. In the years immediately following the Great Depression, the focus shifted to socioeconomic circumstances and primary needs such as food, clothing, and housing. A decade later, during the conservative era following the end of World War II, social workers in schools turned their attention to the intrapsychic and interpersonal issues of their students (Leiby, 1978). By the 1960s and 1970s, school social workers were faced with social and political upheavals, which placed a new emphasis on issues such as racism, drug abuse, child abuse and neglect, and changing social times including protests and violence resulting in a more “humanistic approach to education” (Allen-Meares, 2004, p. 35).

In the 1980s, group work and the inception of legislation for the handicapped became the new focus for school social work resulting in increased responsibilities through special education programs for school social workers. Teamwork and evaluations were now involving social work interventions along with consultation, evaluation, and services for classified students. These responsibilities continue today. Between the 1990s and today, changes in the social environment including gender, single-parent households, the growth of technology, changes in welfare, school-based violence, and community control of schools have become major issues (2004). In addition to the special education responsibilities, advocacy, support for students and families, as well as primary prevention and crisis intervention have become the purview of our present-day school social workers.

Professional

The professional growth of school social workers evolved from the days of the “friendly visitor” in the early 1900s, to the present national standards for practicing school social workers. In the early years, agencies outside of the schools supplied the schools with social workers. In 1913, Rochester, NY, was the first to hire school social workers. By 1919, a nationwide association of visiting teachers was established, which lasted 10 years. After 1929, school social work services were reduced due to the Depression resulting in a shift to social casework during the 1930s and 1940s. This move to casework stemmed from the absence of funds for public school personnel.

During the 1950s, the focus shifted again toward cooperation with other school professionals. In 1955, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) recognized the specialization of school social work. A more professional title, school social worker, was proposed in the 1960s, phasing out the former “visiting teacher” label. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, a move was made to help handicapped students through evaluation, consultation, and treatment. More recently, in the last two decades, some states have developed requirements for the practice of school social work. Additionally, the creation of the National School Social Work Association and a credential was established by NASW. (The credential information can be found at http://www.socialworkers.org/credentials/default.asp.) This governing body felt the essential need for such services in the schools and therefore provided a special credential. As the needs of special students with disabilities were defined, the federal government provided legislation that was enacted by the individual states. Thus, social workers offer services in the schools through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Allen-Meares, 2004).

Legal History

Between 1900 and today, many legal initiatives have developed influencing the position of social workers in schools. Between 1852 and 1918, all the states instituted compulsory education. The reason for this was a need to prevent illiteracy in children sparked by the influx of immigrant children. The idea of a democratic society was also an influence. Discipline and civic duty bolstered the move for public school education as well as the need to curb child labor (Leiby, 1978). Horace Mann was an educational reformer who saw public school education as an answer to the social dilemmas of the poor and common man created by the influx of immigrants (Leiby, 1978). In 1917, the Smith-Hughes Act included vocational education as a mandate, which led to employment in a vocational field directly out of high school. During the Depression years (1929 to mid-1940s), the Civilian Conservation Corps established educational agendas in the camps. During the following decade (1950s) and through the 1980s, the courts ruled on many cases, which made significant changes to education. In 1954, in Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren said, “We conclude, unanimously, that in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place” (www.pbs.org). This decision overturned the 1896 court case of Plessey v. Ferguson. The original ruling of Plessey v. Ferguson, which mandated racial segregation, was in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided title programs establishing grants for compensatory educational programs (www.ed.gov). The Civil Rights Act (1964) influenced the advocacy position of school social work for public programs to be desegregated (www.ourdocuments.gov/doc). Section 504, the Rehabilitation Act (1973), established accommodations for students with verified disabilities. Public Law (PL) 94-142 (passed in 1975) ensured that all handicapped children would receive an education (Wright & Wright, 2007). In 1974, the Family Education and Privacy Act gave parents full access to their child’s school record and the ability to change information that they found incorrect (Wright & Wright, 2007). In 1990, PL 94-142 was altered and became the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). It was again revised in 1997 and again in 2004 including a functional assessment that can be completed by the school social worker. For a complete understanding refer to Chapter 4. A revision of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was passed in 2002 and renamed the No Child Left Behind Act. The main objective of No Child Left Behind is “… to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging state academic achievement standards and state academic assessments” (Wright & Wright, 2007, p. 299). It requires testing each year in grades 3 to 8, “highly qualified teachers” in each classroom, “research-based instruction,” parental decisions and involvement, selection of schools, and public reporting of student progress (p. 299). (See Chapter 4 for more details.)

TIME LINE

1838–1920

• 1838: Influence of Horace Mann
• 1852–1918: Compulsory education in all U.S. states was accomplished
• 1896: Plessey v. Ferguson
• 1913: Social work services begin in schools; attendance and academic achievement were the emphasis; Rochester, NY, hires first school social worker
• 1917: The Smith-Hughes National Vocational Education Act
• 1919: National Association of Visiting Teachers established
• 1920s: School social workers called friendly visitors

1929–1950

• 1929: Great Depression
• 1930s: Shift in school social work services: food, clothing, shelter were emphasized as result of the Depression
• 1940s: Reduction in school social work services and a shift to casework
• Civilian Conservation Corps established education in camps
• World War II: School social work focus on intrapsychic and interpersonal issues

1950–1980

• 1950: School social worker begins cooperating with school professionals
• 1954: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
• 1955: National Association of Social Workers (NASW) recognizes specialty of school social work
• 1960: Name of visiting teacher changed to school social worker
• 1960–1970: School social worker face issues of racism, drug abuse, child abuse and/or neglect, and “humanistic approach to education” (Allen-Meares, 2004)
• 1965: Elementary and Secondary Education Act
• 1973: The Rehabilitation Act Section 504
• 1974: Family Education and Privacy Act
• 1975: PL 94–142
• 1970s: School social worker focuses on handicapped children

1980-Present

• 1980s: Croup work for school social workers
• 1980s: Increased role with special education for school social workers
• 1980s: School social worker focuses on handicapped children, including evaluation, consultation, and treatment
• 1980s: Teamwork for school social workers, including consultation, evaluation, and services for classified students
• 1990: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
• 1990s-present: School social worker deals with changes in family systems, growth of technology, school violence, community, and control of schools
• 1997: IDEA revised
• 2002: No Child Left Behind Act
• 2004: IDEA revised
• 2000s: Requirements for school social work practice established by states
• 2000s: NASW creates special credential for school social worker

A SYSTEMS APPROACH

At the turn of the 20th century, the term systems no longer only referenced military and government interactions but rather included managerial, philosophical, and scientific interrelationships as well. Social work was very much influenced by this theory because it helped understand the person in the environment concept.

The social work systems approach has its etiology in the biological theory developed by Ludwig von Bertanlanffy (Allen-Meares, 2004). Both speak of the interrelationships of the organism (person) with its (his or her) environment. Social work focuses on the person in the environment, better known by social work professionals as PIE. We realize that the impact of the environment on the person and that of the person on the environment is reciprocal. Therefore, our need is to have an approach that recognizes this unique philosophy. Putting the responsibility for the problem on the client alone defeats our purpose. We look at the variables that are contributed by the environment in which the client functions. The systems theory emulates the biological theory in that it recognizes and takes into account the mutual relationship between an organism (person) and its (his or her) environment. For example, a young girl became hysterical in her English class one morning. Her teacher could not illicit from her the cause of this reaction. I interviewed the child in a quiet, comfortable, and safe environment. She shared with me that her stepfather had beaten her mother the night before as well as the family dog. He also threatened to kill the dog. She was told by her mother that she had to come to school, but when she arrived, she was overwhelmed with emotion and was unable to verbalize the situation. Learning can only take place under conditions that are supportive and safe. This child felt safe in school and therefore could express her feelings. The school environment, as opposed to her home, was supportive and safe. When the child understood after contact with her mother that everyone at home was going to be cared for, she could then resume her academic work. This case is a clear example of the interrelationship of environments and the need to modify the living environment to allow for the client to function in the school milieu.

Each of us exists within an intricate system of micro and macro environments that affect one another on many levels. The school as an organization needs to be examined from the perspective of how it functions in its interrelationship with the child, parents, and community. It was established for the purpose of educating children. The micro level includes the child and the teacher; the child and the administration; the parent or guardian, the teacher, and administration; and the teacher and the administration. Children are sent to school to learn, and the process can only be successful with the cooperation of the family and the teacher. The teacher becomes the substitute parent (in loco parentis), and the child therefore is in the care of the teacher. It is a trusting relationship that permits communication and socialization. The teacher must be interactive with the student and receive information that the child is learning. Without these elements, education could not exist as it does today. Children need to have an alliance with the teacher and the teacher with the student. Parents need to believe that their child is being treated with respect and dignity as well as being given the essential academic components by the teacher. Teachers must also feel that there is respect and open communication with the parent(s) or guardian(s). At times, the relationship of the child to the administration becomes one of discipline. When the child’s education is not successful, the administration must intercede to find the proper ingredients for the educational process to succeed. Parents and administrators are often called on to intervene when the academic success of the child is in question. The interaction of these people sometimes becomes the pivotal component for preparing a plan for intervention so that the student’s education can be maximized. The teachers and administrators must work together to ensure the education of each child is carried out systematically and with regard for the individual child. For example: A child is disciplined for not having completed an assignment. The grandparent had died the night before but the child could not come to explain his loss. When the child did not give the teacher an adequate answer for not having done the assignment, he was sent to the principal’s office. Again, the child said nothing. When the parent was contacted, the explanation was given and the policy consequence was not enforced. The child was then sent to the social worker for a counseling session to deal with his loss. The social worker views this scenario as a positive situation, since the needs of the child and the teacher were considered. In this way, the social worker can feel the PIE is reciprocal, and it fulfills the ideal of the systems approach.

On the macro level, the school is a community organization that provides for the welfare of the minors living in that environment. The school board is made up of representatives of the community who make policy and programs that govern the education of those children. This makes the school a vital component of the community that is entrusted with the human resources: the children. If the school is to function successfully as part of the community, it needs to provide the children with not only an adequate education but also an exceptional experience. The community, in turn, must communicate with the school board and give input to their needs. The credentials of the personnel must be carefully managed, and the school facility must be a safe and secure environment where community members feel confident that the inhabitants are carefully monitored. The school organization must relate to other community organizations, and reciprocity should exist between the resources of all community agencies. The school must remain open and available for use to other agencies in the community and to the community members. The community representatives (the board of education) must have dialog and respond to the community at large. For example, a beloved coach was losing his position because of budget cuts. The students and parents presented the need for this coach and this position to be kept because of the importance this program had to the students, parents, and the community at large. The community members presented th...