Culture Change in Ethiopia

Alemayehu Mekonnen

• Publisher: Regnum
• Year: 2013
• Print ISBN: 9781908355393
• eBook ISBN: 9781911372462
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Christian Ministry

This book addresses the causes and the consequences of culture change in Ethiopia, from Haile Selassie to the present, based on thorough academic research. Although the book is written from an evangelical perspective, it invites Ethiopians from all religious, ideological, and ethnic background to reflect on their past, analyze their present and to engage in unity with diversity to face the future. It also appeals to the conscience of global and regional powers who have been directly and indirectly involved in the affairs of Ethiopia.

Establishing the Context

One of the challenges of serving the Lord in this ever-changing world is coping with change itself. Changing ideologies, economic realities and the coming and going of a certain lifestyle all raise new leadership issues and more profound anthropological and theological concerns. Shifts in cultural environment also have repercussions for the church; the converse is also true. The church can make an impact on the community it serves.

The impetus behind the subject of this book is the radical and rapid change that has occurred in Ethiopia during the Marxist regime in 1974 and the government that toppled it in 1990, which is still ruling the country. The focus of my research is on the factors of culture change in Ethiopia in reference to the role and contribution of evangelical churches and on the task the church faced in carrying out the Great Commission in that context.

Several factors have contributed to the development of my interest in culture change and leadership: Haile Selassie’s modernization programme, the Marxist revolution, the impact of the Evangelical movement and my personal experience, as a then-young convert, pastor, and teacher.

Haile Selassie’s Modernization Programme

Haile Selassie’s foreign policy, diplomatic ability, ambition for modernization, and interest in world affairs set the tone for Ethiopia’s international relations throughout much of the 20^th century.¹ He was involved in foreign policy as early as 1923, when, during his regency, Ethiopia was admitted to membership in the League of Nations. He reconciled different African factions and blocks, which led to the creation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 and the selection of Addis Ababa as its permanent headquarters.

Dawit Wolde Giorgis writes:

Ethiopia commanded great respect because of Haile Selassie. For Africans and many blacks in other parts of the world, Ethiopia was a symbol of black freedom and independence. The Ras Tafarians in the West Indies even looked upon it as the Promised Land, with Haile Selassie as their Christ. Within the country he was “The Emperor,” the quasi-divine father figure, the protector, omnipotent and infallible (1989:7).

Until the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, Ethiopia was ruled by kings. More than all the previous kings, Haile Selassie was obsessed with the modernization of Ethiopia. His long-time American advisor, John Spencer,² commented, “Haile Selassie had raised Ethiopia from a desired supplication to become a symbol to the world of the overriding obligation to respect the territorial integrity and independence of all states” (Spencer 1992:14). His ambition to modernize Ethiopia was implemented through training Ethiopians in practically all disciplines (see chapter 5). He advanced schools, hospitals, and land and air transportation systems. However, as ironic as it seems, the fulfillment of his dream became his nemesis. He did not cope with the change for which he struggled. Alemayehu Gebre Mariam comments:

Haile Selassie’s problems with modernization were intrinsically related to his sense of Pater Patrae, his belief that he was the patriarch and father of the country. All the people in his realm were his children, and as the father he knew what was best for his children. In return for his benevolent paternalism he demanded loyalty and filial obedience from his people (1992:20).

The dissatisfaction of the people, the student movement,³ the protest of the proletariat and peasants, and the revolt of the army finally ended the reign of the age stricken emperor. Haile Selassie was blamed for monopolizing power. He was severely criticized for presuming to be the ultimate law and its single chief. Although this observation sounds simple, its implications were very complex. There had been a change in leadership expectations and perceptions of power, which, as will be discussed further below, also had implications for Christian leaders. Values of education and leadership training were thrown into question. Thus the issue of contextually appropriate education and leadership training arose. It is this issue that this book seeks to address.

The Marxist Revolution

The year 1974 marked the beginning of a fundamental change in Addis Ababa and the country in general. It saw the fall of the old imperial regime and its replacement by a group of young army officers who aimed to revolutionize their society and abolish the feudal system. These officers were the by-products of Haile Selassie’s modernization program. After the Second World War, the emperor had established a centralized, Western-trained army. The army, probably the smallest in Ethiopia’s long history, numbered only 45,000 professionals (See Erlich 1986: 220). Erlich explains its deployment:

Generally speaking, the army was made up of four divisions, an air force (based in Dabre-Zeit, forty miles from Addis Ababa and in Asmara), and a small navy; Division I, also known as the Imperial Guard, was stationed around the capital and was in charge of supporting the regime. Division II, centered in Asmara, was in charge of fighting the Eritrean separatists; the Harer-based, mechanized Division III faced the Somalis; and Division IV, with headquarters in Addis Ababa, was in charge of the South and the West (1986:225-226).

The emperor thus managed to build an army that was Western-educated, politically neutral, and yet equipped with modern weapons. The military upper class (including the ranks of colonel and above) was part of the ruling establishment and was looked upon as the main pillar of the existing order (Erlich 1986:228). At the same time provinces were demilitarized. The establishment of political parties and organizations was avoided. New political ideas were repressed. The emperor, therefore, initially based his absolute political power on the allegiance of the depoliticized army. The army, however, revolted and, under the badge of Marxism, a brutal military junta ruled Ethiopia for seventeen years after the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie.⁴ This history of dictatorship has rendered Ethiopians suspicious of any strong leader.

The Evangelical / Protestant Movement

Prior to the 1974 Revolution, the five processes of culture change were occurring, including (1) acculturation, (2) nationalization, (3) Amharanization (4) secularization, and (5) evangelization (Tippett 1970:282-283). Concerning the readiness of the people to embrace a new religion, Tippet has observed the following:

When the people start complaining about their witchdoctors because of the economic strain of their extortion and the impotence of their magic, it is quite apparent that religious void has developed in their lives. This is a natural time of change for religion. It is the appropriate time for the presentation of a new attitude to religion without too much dislocation. Barriers are lowered and there is readiness to respond with acceptance and openness for instruction, for the old gods have failed and the people are disposed to reject them. They only retain them because they have no substitute and they fear the vulnerability of being godless. If Christianity cannot win converts under these conditions then there must surely be something wrong with her methods of communication, for to use the biblical imaginary, “the fields are ripe unto harvest” (1970:85).

Since the 1960s the charismatic churches have evangelized both nominal and undecided people. The Ethiopian Pentecostals used this period of transition to their advantage. They provided for the spiritual needs of both the elite and the common people, despite bitter opposition from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and some officials in the Haile Selassie government. Due to the spontaneous nature and the spiritual principles of their work, however, no accurate statistical data exist. Counting converts was considered unspiritual among Pentecostals. We consequently do not know exactly how many people came to the knowledge of Christ in the early Ethiopian Pentecostal Movement. We do know, however, that the Charismatic/Pentecostal churches have multiplied. Moreover, mainline churches like the Baptists, Mennonites, Mekane Eyesus, and Kale Hiewet (Word of Life) churches have felt the impact from the movement.⁵

C. Peter Wagner summarized:

There are places in the world where the most rapidly growing churches would not be listed as Pentecostal, but which exhibit Pentecostal characteristics such as healing the sick, casting out demons, miracles and signs. The Lutheran churches of Ethiopia would be an example. In recent years they have been the fastest growing churches in the world. When a Norwegian research team studied the reasons for such phenomenal growth they discovered that, depending on the location, from 60 to 80 percent of the new believers had been drawn to the gospel through firsthand contact with supernatural signs and wonders (1986:12-13).

This phenomenal Pentecostal growth had both strength and weaknesses. Charismatics in Ethiopia are strong and effective in evangelism. However, there remain theological, missiological, and leadership issues that need to be addressed (Engelsviken 1975). Most denominational leaders have been seriously concerned about the impact of culture change on church leadership. Sensing the crucial need for leadership training and theological education, denominational Bible schools have been started, such as the ones led by Mulu Wongel (Full Gospel) and Meserete Kristos. Moreover, a series of one or two weeks’ leadership training seminars and symposia are conducted by the Evangelical Churches Fellowship of Ethiopia (ECFE). Efforts have thus been made to enhance the quality of leadership and address the theological and missiological issues at hand. The results, however, have been marked only by sporadic breakthroughs, not by profound impact upon the leadership in the seventies and eighties. It seems evident that there remain factors of resistance that hinder progress in a broad-based development of well-rounded leaders. This book examines possible factors of resistance.

Personal Experience

My interest in culture change, leadership and the Evangelical Movement in Ethiopia started in my mid-teens. As a young man I aspired for higher education and a better life. With no psychological and intellectual preparation, Ethiopia changed from monarchy to rule by a Marxist government. The traditional values were rapidly changed by the Marxist revolution. Though we were a society in which everything had to do with religion, we were told by the Marxists that religion is “an opiate of the masses.” There was new Marxist terminology, the mushrooming of political parties, and class and ideological struggle characterized by bloodshed, torture, and the unjust treatments of all kinds of people. It was overwhelming to cope with the change. Life was uncertain. The revolution was unpredictable. Lifelong friends became untrustworthy because of the political line they chose, and all the infrastructures we were familiar with were uprooted. One wonders where to turn when centuries of history, culture, value, ethos and norms that hold together the society are instantly becoming an evil that needs to be eliminated.

¹ For background on factors affecting Ethiopia’s international relations prior to the revolution of 1974, see Harold Marcus, Ethiopia, Great Britain and the United States, 1941-1974 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), and John H. Spencer, Ethiopia at Bay: A Personal Account of the Haile Selassie Years (Algonac, MI: Reference Publications, 1987).

² Haile Selassie, who had a good knowledge of the making of Ethiopia’s empire, had directly requested that the United States provide him someone of sufficient calibre to understand the needs and position of his dependent empire and the operation of the big powers. The Ethiopians “requested” the man whom they knew and who knew them. The United States responded favorably to Ethiopia. The State Department located John Spencer and informed him of the invitation. Spencer accepted the position. As a lawyer, as a naval officer, and as man who had observed the fall of the League of Nations, he was the top candidate for the position. He knew the ins and outs of the positions of the super-powers and of the smaller empires in general, and that of Ethiopia in particular, through his varied experience.

³ For a detailed account of the Ethiopian student political movement, see Kiflu Taddesse (1993). Taddesse covers the active political participation of the Ethiopian students from December 1961 through February 1974. See his chronological summary of the student movement (pp. 62-67). The interesting paradox of the student movement is that both Marxism and Pentecostalism were operating concurrently on the Addis Ababa university campus and other centres. Concerning the fate of the students involved in the political movement, Taddesse writes, “In the incessant struggle of the radicals and the brutal policies of the regime well-intentioned, educated and skilled citizens, hundreds and thousands of revolutionary activist including EPRP members, were lost. Many of those who survived the ordeal are still undergoing the trauma of the repression and carry its scar. Many are disabled physically. Many of them are unmarried and have no family of their own and children to care for. They were married to a struggle that had gone astray. Many are still grieving the loss of their comrades and contemplating their unfulfilled dreams. They still do not know if their struggle had become the source of the misery for their folks, as the economic plight of the people under the Haile Selassie regime had turned for the worse in the years that followed. Ethiopian mothers reportedly fell victims of the ongoing political repression and thousands of them suffered from high blood-pressure and other health complications” (emphasis mine 1993:247).

⁴ For detailed accounts of Mengistu’s regime see Dawit Wolde Giorgis (1989), Milkias 2006, and Ottaway (1978).

⁵ For further reading and detail account of the Evangelical movement in Ethiopia see Eshete (2009) and Michael (1993), for the Pentecostal movement see Engelsviken (1975).

Culture and Cultural Change

In order to describe or introduce the culture change in Ethiopia, it is logical and essential that one understands culture and society from an anthropological perspective. “Culture is not just an open-ended way of life. Rather, it is a plan, map, or blueprint for living that is always in the process of formation and adjustment. It is a code for action, for survival, and for success in life” (Luzbetak 1989:156). Culture change includes a change of information, attitude and ideas about behavior. As Ethiopia evolved from feudalism into modernization through Western education during the Haile Selassie era, modern farming, health service, surface and air transportation systems, and communication structures improved enormously. However, most people looked at the improvements and only noticed that the country was ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• content
• Foreword
• Acknowledgement
• Preface
• Introduction
• Chapter One Establishing the Context
• Chapter Two Culture and Cultural Change
• Chapter Three Cultural Leadership Values
• Chapter Four Cultural Leadership Patterns in Ethiopia
• Chapter Five The Impact of Haile Selassie’s Modernization Program
• Chapter Six Change in the Area of Christian Faith
• Chapter Seven The Challenge of Marxism in the Economic Structure
• Chapter Eight Current Contextual Factors
• Chapter Nine An Important Question Every Leader should ask: What is Man?
• Chapter Ten The Way Forward
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Index
• Back Cover