Research Methods for Student Radiographers

A Survival Guide

Christopher M. Hayre, Xiaoming Zheng

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000454345
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Medicina
• Subtopic: Teoría, práctica y referencia médicas

This book provides an holistic picture of the application of research in radiography and focuses on multivariant methodological approaches and practices. It will provide readers insight into both contemporary and innovative methods within radiography research, backed up with evidence-based literature. This book may also be translated into other health disciplines as it introduces research to the reader by detailing terms that can often be confusing for students. These remain central in understanding the importance of research in radiography and how the generation of new knowledge is obtained. This will be supported with subsequent chapters concerning the literature, formation of research questions and detail the early beginnings of a research proposal. Chapters will include a wide range of topics, such as quantitative and qualitative methodologies and data collection tools pertinent to radiographic research, whilst discussing data analysis and need for rigor. The authors draw from our experiences, published outputs and clinical work, supported with alternate philosophies and methods used in diagnostic radiography. Each chapter will examine the multifaceted use and application of each 'sub-theme' pertinent to research in radiography, which is presented in a single text for students and, perhaps, practitioners. The targeted audience for this book is interdisciplinary but clearly focuses on those studying undergraduate radiography in response to the limited texts available. We also anticipate it to provide a useful tool for academics delivering undergraduate radiography programmes and those supporting postgraduate research. The key features will:

• Explore important research approaches and concepts within diagnostic radiography
• Provide contemporary evidence-based practice regarding mixed method approaches
• Provide a 'how to guide' for understanding key research principles in a wide range of radiographic settings
• Evaluate the impact of research on patients and the radiographer–patient relationship

1

Introducing Research Methods for Student Radiographers

Christopher M. Hayre

DOI: 10.1201/9780367559311-1

1.1 Introduction

This introductory chapter sets the scene for first-time researchers who have either enrolled or are undertaking some form of empirical research. In part, this chapter introduces the reader to some basic questions, such as ‘what is research?’ and ‘what are research paradigms?’ These are important in terms of clarifying any presumptions previously held, but also links to future questions around research in diagnostic radiography. For undergraduate radiography students entering the research context for the first time, they are often exposed to unique terms and phrases, which remain unfamiliar. As this chapter progresses, however, it will introduce these terms to situate both quantitative and qualitative research. It will also provide some rationale and grounding in terms of recognizing that research approaches are often polarized. This leads to my own motivation in developing this book in an attempt to expose uncertainties for students, which can later be challenged and/or applied in the academic space. This chapter not only asserts the value of research amongst radiography students and any prospective practitioners, it also outlines the value of research within our profession, now, and in future years. Whilst this book is principally a text for the undergraduate audience, it will also resonate with practitioners, postgraduate students and perhaps academic staff entering higher education employment for the first time. From experience, we may often work with peers who have extensive or little research experience; practitioners leaving clinical work and entering higher education for either study or employment are commonplace. This chapter speaks to those individuals. Interestingly, this book may be used by practicing radiographers who are thinking of starting a research project whilst in their clinical role. The latter engagement is potentially more exciting whereby the practice of research amongst practicing radiographers is an ‘everyday role’.

This chapter (and forthcoming chapters) is based on teaching, learning and research experiences. Having taught and researched in several parts of the world, this book offers a transnational ‘feel’ towards the practice and application of research in radiography. Central in this process is reflexivity, which intertwines the practice of research with self-development, which is not static, but develops and re-develops as time progresses. This chapter will introduce key terms affiliated with each research methodology in order for students to become familiar with them. It will also set the stage for subsequent chapters within this book and signpost accordingly, whilst also making reference to other key texts throughout. There is also a potential caveat. As the book progresses, subsequent chapters and the overall narrative will also evolve, as does any research project. This is important to highlight now as it may be considered a juxtaposition, which we reject. For instance, there are instances in this book that are written in a context that is generally accepted, i.e., the norm or convention. This is important for new researchers in order to understand the ‘general feel’ of what it means to talk and discuss about research processes. The use of inverted commas not only emphasizes but also illustrates that logic can change or even be misplaced. For instance, whilst discussion around certain methodologies is written to a level of acceptable understandings at levels 4 and 5 for higher education purposes, it is also important to challenge dogmatic views and approaches in our contemporary space. This does not mean it is correct, nor should it be dismissed, but through evidence base knowledge and peer review, this book, at times, professes alternate viewpoints that may allow the reader to express or challenge their own research agenda(s) and/or previous conventions as they ‘journey’ throughout their own research. After all, radiography is positioned within the social sciences and natural sciences and to reject the use of either social science or natural science would arguably disregard the distinct and unique scope of radiography research being conducted. We even propose radiography as a ‘united science’ whereby radiography and prospective researchers not only appreciate the value of each paradigmatic tradition, but observe the utility and egalitarian motives in order to advance our profession forward.

1.2 What Is Research and What Does It Offer?

In order to begin to answer the question ‘what research is?’ it is important to introduce the term ‘originality’. As a radiography student, reading this book, you would have been exposed to a wealth of existing literature within your tertiary education setting. This knowledge informs your education and is today published in a number of formats: authored textbooks (like this one), edited book volumes, journal articles and conference proceedings. This ‘evidence’ is encapsulated within what we term, an evidence base, paradigm and/or body of knowledge. They are interchangeable, yet the term paradigm is generally interpreted as a standard perspective, or a set of ideas concerning a discipline existing at a particular point in time (Kuhn, 1962). This current knowledge base manifests itself in a number of ways. For instance, it may encompass understandings, such as how X-ray tubes operate, or the known radiobiological interactions/effects within tissues and/or perhaps how digital radiographs are produced, and then optimized via amorphous selenium (a-Se) detectors (Hayre and Cox, 2020). These concepts exist within our radiographic body of knowledge or radiographic paradigm, along with many other schools of thought and concepts. This notion of ‘knowing what we know’ offers an important lens in order to gain an understanding of what research means for us as a profession as we seek to uncover what we do not know.

Research is typically defined as the creation of new knowledge or use of existing knowledge, but applied in a new and creative way, which can instil new ways of thinking whilst applying alternate methodologies (O’Reilly, 2011). For instance, this may involve critically examining previously published literature and challenging new ideas or suggestions for future research. In addition, the concept of undertaking empirical research is underscored by adding information, adding something new, which has either, say, been acquired by participant observation or X-ray experimentation. Another way of understanding research is understanding our need for empiricism. Empiricism in the general sense sits within qualitative and quantitative paradigms, but is principally aligned with epistemological theory and regarded as the source of knowledge (Adams, 1975). This is discussed in more detail in chapter 2. As researchers, then, our intention is seeking out new empiricism, thus seeking new knowledge. For diagnostic radiography, this does not always mean setting up an X-ray experiment and recording photons in a controlled way. As we will come to appreciate, research enables us to develop our knowledge, our current schools of thinking, challenge customary beliefs, behaviours and attitudes, and perhaps going against conventional norms. These aspects of research, then, requires a number of tools (which we will recognize as research methods) in order to not only appreciate the varied nature of the world around us, but also the utilization of varied (and often opposing) strategies to help us advance our knowledge and provide innovative ways of performing research.

When we think of the word data in radiography, we want readers to not directly link this to numbers on a spreadsheet, which can later be used for statistical inference. Whilst important and identified in chapters 5–7, this book recognizes that data can involve words, sentences, pictures, and reflections – discussed more in chapters 8–10. Further, whilst the authors of this text have their own research goals and pursuits, we respect data emanating from appropriately applied research strategies, grounded by their respective paradigmatic traditions and associated philosophies, regardless of their qualitative or quantitative nature. Griffiths and Norman (2013, p.583) highlight that in the field of nursing, a ‘paradigm war’ has the possibility of hindering academic development. As paradigmatic disagreements exist in other fields, such as nursing, we may also hear and/or observed similar rhetoric in radiography whereby one paradigm is favoured amongst academics, or seen as superior, over another.

Whilst we accept these paradigmatic traditions as methodological, any engagement with the research process in terms of offering value should enable researchers to ‘break out’ of what has already been defined as the epistemological paradigm. This is important. By breaking out, its synonymous with the term originality and reinforces what research is and what it can offer. For those reading and embarking onto honours, masters or doctoral study, the volume and level of ‘breaking out’ [originality], coupled with epistemological relevance will naturally differ. The latter awards naturally demand greater contribution and originality to the profession and, above all, dissemination. Prior to seeking any new information for your own level of intended study, it is important to ask: what level of originality is expected and will it be enough? Ongoing discussions with your supervisory team and colleagues will remain central as there is now a general acceptance that researchers are expected to have published prior to embarking onto PhD programmes. This is certainly a paradigm shift when comparing and considering, say, a PhD to be an apprenticeship in research, which certainly remained the case for the first author upon entering his PhD studentship programme in the United Kingdom. Currently, there is perhaps greater expectation on prospective students to whom have already gained research experience in order to become successful PhD Candidates.

For the research process itself, there should be a chronological framework in terms of how we, the authors, feel the research process can be approached, in terms of conceptualizing, as well as performing research. For instance, forthcoming chapters examine philosophical underpinnings (chapter 2), usually a requirement of consideration during developmental phases. Next, the development of research questions, aims and objectives (chapter 3), which is followed up with identifying ethical considerations in chapter 4. The book, then, focuses on methodological considerations for quantitative approaches (chapters 5–7), supported with qualitative approaches (chapters 8–10). Chapter 11 considers aspects relevant to the researcher post data collection and analysis such as leaving the field, research impact and consideration of the reflexive practitioner. These discussions are not only outcomes as a result of reflexive processes during the development of this book, but also intend to demonstrate an outlook on self and how this could be transferable.

The delivery and style of this book could readily be applied for teaching and learning delivery, supplemented with other key texts. Yet, the design, on initial examination does not appreciate reflexivity. Like most books, it is important to demonstrate chapters chronologically, e.g., chapters 1–11 in this case; however, it is argued that researchers go beyond this linear model when conducting, analysing and publishing results. Instead, it is recognized that the research process requires moving ‘back and forth’ theoretically, analytically and practically, in some circumstances, regardless of the strategy employed. This perspective is explained in more detail in chapters 9 and 11, the former engaging in the process of reflexivity as a data collection tool, with the latter considering reflexivity for learners and practitioners. In short, it is not presupposed that reflexivity remains a process considered simply ‘at the end’ of any research process, quite the contrary. As this book evolved, we also encourage readers to recognize the fluid state of research, coincided with the importance of continuously engaging with the literature, meeting supervisors (individually and collectively), supported clinical experiences, upgrade meetings and/or simply conversations with peers. These remain central to the development of the research project, thesis and, most importantly, you as the researcher. It is acknowledged that any process or direction in which a student initially embarks upon is not linear and that alternate paths may be necessary and unavoidable. Instances, then, of backtracking or sidestepping may be necessary in order to ensure a successful project. For now, as we delve into the early stages of research it is recommended we continue with a linear approach, but also appreciate changes and deviances along the way.

Because this book is focused on assisting undergraduate researchers, as supervisors of undergraduate, postgraduate and PhD students, we understand the unknown and often challenging situations students find themselves in. Whilst the title of this book indicates some form of survival need to progress, it is important that students utilize the skills and knowledge of their PhD supervisors as they are often central in guiding and directing. So, when asked, ‘what is research and what does it offer?’ it is evident that the practice of undertaking research and publishing original data is clearly paramount, yet, as acknowledged, the research journey also embodies the student, the profession and career aspirations of individuals seeking to move into the research or academic world.

1.3 What Are Research Paradigms?

In order to set aside and discern differences between quantitative and qualitative research, it is importa...