Supporting Disorders of Learning and Co-ordination

Effective Provision for Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia, and Dyspraxia

Michael Farrell

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000463453
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Pedagogía
• Subtopic: Educación general

This revised and updated third edition, previously titled The Effective Teacher's Guide to Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties (Learning Disabilities), unravels the complexity of specific learning difficulties in an accessible and user-friendly way.

Each chapter provides key information about the disorder in question, giving a clear definition before discussing prevalence, causal factors, identification, and assessment and provision. Implications for the curriculum and related assessment, pedagogy, resources, therapy/care, and school and classroom organisation are explained, allowing providers to reflect and adapt their practice in response to the needs of the individual. The book informs effective provision, with the aim of encouraging the best achievement and personal and social development for children and young people.

The book authoritatively and lucidly addresses issues associated with

• impairment in reading/dyslexia,

• impairment in written expression/dysgraphia,

• impairment in mathematics/dyscalculia, and

• developmental co-ordination disorder/dyspraxia.

Recognising the importance and the challenge of multi-professional working, the book relates provision to the roles of parents and carers alongside that of the practitioner. Underpinned by research and widely held professional judgement, this will prove a practical, readable, and inspiring resource for professionals in the UK, US, and elsewhere including teachers, therapists, psychologists, and students entering these professions.

Chapter 1

Introducing disorders of learning and co-ordination, and provision

DOI: 10.4324/9781003177975-1

Introduction

Here, I introduce disorders of learning and co-ordination. The chapter explains aspects of these disorders such as ‘prevalence’ and ‘causal factors’, and, regarding provision, discusses examples such as, ‘pedagogy’, ‘therapy’, and ‘organisation’. I outline the content and structure of the book, highlighting features of this new edition, and explain for whom the book is intended.

Disorders of learning and co-ordination

Disorders of learning and co-ordination discussed in the present book are

• impairment in reading/dyslexia,
• impairment in written expression/dysgraphia,
• developmental co-ordination disorder/dyspraxia, and
• impairment in mathematics/dyscalculia.

These disorders are sometimes called ‘specific’ in that, being circumscribed, they do not imply a generalised difficulty in learning (as does for example cognitive impairment). The designation goes back some years. In the US, ‘specific learning disability’ is one of the designated disability codes (code 9) reflecting categories of disability under federal law which include impairment in reading, impairment in written expression, and impairment in mathematics (20 United States Code 1402, 1997). In England, a similar classification, ‘specific learning difficulties’, comprises dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dyspraxia (Department of Education and Skills, 2005).

Aspects of disorders of learning and co-ordination

In each of the subsequent chapters on different types of disorders, I discuss definitions, prevalence, causal factors, and identification and assessment.

Definitions of disorders

Defining a disorder as clearly as possible is naturally important. Definitions may involve criteria such as those set out in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition also known as DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These in turn relate to identifying and assessing the disorder. However, these definitions are debated. For some commentators, the term ‘dyslexia’ can be misleading when interpretations separate it from difficulties with reading that many professionals and researchers consider central (Elliott and Grigorenko, 2014).

Prevalence

In the present context, prevalence refers to the ‘amount’ of a disorder in a population at a specified time. Often, it is given as a percentage (or proportion) of the population in question. ‘Point prevalence’ therefore concerns the percentage at a specific point in time, such as a stated date. ‘Period prevalence’ refers to the percentage over a longer time between two specified dates. As to the population, it might be the wide general one, or a smaller subgroup such as people in a certain age band. A related term, ‘incidence’ is a measure of the new cases of a disorder arising in a population in a specified period, for example a day, a month, or a year. Such information enables health care and education providers to plan provision.

Estimates of prevalence of a condition such as impairment in reading can vary widely. People may disagree about the nature of the condition, and therefore about the criteria used in identifying and assessing it. Where there is such disagreement, it affects confidence in what represents suitable provision.

Causal factors

Because it may not be possible to identify what directly causes a disorder, the expression ‘causal factors’ is used. This allows attention to be drawn to several potentially relevant influences. With impairment in reading, researchers have examined many contributary candidates, including phonological processing/deficit, visual processing, rapid naming, and auditory processing.

Identification and assessment

Identification and assessment of types of disorders is linked to definitions and related criteria. Where a disorder has been defined and criteria have been developed for it, it is unsurprising that this is used in identification and assessment. Related to this is the use of psychometric tests, observations of the individual, and discussions with others.

Co-occurrence of disorders

Some disorders commonly co-occur. To take just one example, the co-occurrence of developmental co-ordination disorder with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is about 50% (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Where disorders arise together, it may be because of common underlying causal factors. Or the disorders may relate to shared difficulties with ‘underlying’ skills such as attention and memory.

Aspects of provision for disorders

In later chapters, as well as aspects of disorders, provision for them is also discussed regarding curriculum and related assessment, pedagogy, resources, therapy/care, and organisation.

Curriculum refers to the content of what is to be presented to or made available for an individual. It is devised with the intention that a student will gain knowledge, build a skill or skills, and develop certain attitudes and values. It is the ‘what’ of enabling learning and development. Such a framework also involves structure, like the content being set out in a certain order (for example from easy to harder aspects).

Where it is important to know that something has been learned, curriculum-related assessment comes in. If an individual has been learning aspects of phonics, then assessments may be carried out to see if these have indeed been acquired.

Pedagogy concerns methods of teaching that enable learning. It may involve encouraging the use of senses to enhance learning – looking, listening, touching, and so on. The learner may be encouraged to practice a skill in small steps and build from these into more complex skill patterns. Guidance (through discussion) may be given to help an individual develop attitudes like respect for others.

Resources refer to the materials, equipment and other aids used to enhance learning and development. Examples are pencil grips, computers and software, rulers, microscopes, gymnasium equipment such as wall bars and vaults, and maps.

Therapy refers to provision involving specialists in certain areas of development. They include speech and language therapists/pathologists, physiotherapists, psychotherapists, psychologists (clinical, school/ educational), physicians, and nurses.

Care relates to therapy. It concerns ensuring that the health and well-being of an individual are enhanced and involves teachers, teaching/classroom assistants, medical and nursing professionals, and others.

Organisation has to do with grouping arrangements made to encourage learning and development. It may refer to learners interacting in pairs or small groups. On a wider scale, it can denote the organisation of a setting where a larger number of learners are present. This might be a school, clinic, tuition centre, or similar, where decisions are made about grouping learners, for example, according to age.

Provision and effectiveness

Aspects of provision such as ‘curriculum’ and ‘organisation’ interrelate. Provision may comprise programmes or approaches in which content, pedagogy, and resources overlap. However, distinguishing these aspects can help providers to systematically review what they offer.

Provision is expected to be ‘effective’ in enhancing learning and development. This implies that there is evidence from studies, or professional consensus among those using the approaches, of their benefits. Important to establish are the efficacy and anticipated outcomes of a particular practice, whether expected outcomes match an individual’s needs, and potential risks of protracted intensive interventions, including threats to family cohesion. Approaches can be evaluated drawing on evidence-based practice. They are also informed by professional judgement, and the views of the individual with the disorder and of their family or carers. Provision for a particular individual should encourage progress, development, and well-being.

Accommodations and modifications to programmes

A distinction is made between special education accommodations and modifications. Essentially, accommodations are physical or environmental changes an educator makes to the learning setting. Examples are giving more time to complete a task, allowing short breaks within the allocated time, changing the layout of the room or part of it, and using computer software to ‘read’ text to the student. These enable the learner to work round a potential difficulty.

Modifications may be made where learners have profound cognitive or other difficulties. They change the core programme by using a parallel curriculum that does not include all standards typical of the age grade in question. It may involve changes in standards required, courses followed, and timing of programmes. This may include lower-level reading, eliminating specific standards, and modifying the curriculum.

Order and structure of subsequent chapters

Remaining chapters of this book each cover a disorder of learning or co-ordination:

• impairment in reading/dyslexia;
• impairment in written expression/dysgraphia;
• impairment in mathematics/dyscalculia; and
• developmental co-ordination disorder/dyspraxia.

New to this edition is a chapter on multi-professional working reinforcing the importance of professionals understanding each other’s role and pulling together with a common purpose.

Each chapter typically includes a definition of the disorder, prevalence, causal factors, and identification and assessment. This is followed by a description of provision, such as projects, approaches, and schemes found to be effective and supported by professional judgement, brought together under a framework of curriculum and related assessment, pedagogy, resources, therapy/care, and organisation. Each chapter offers thinking points to encourage discussion and reflection. Key texts are mentioned for further reading. References are included at the ends of chapters so that they are available if an individual chapter is copied or purchased electronically.

Proposed readers

Proposed readers include those involved in education, namely teachers, head teachers, classroom assistants, and school governors and managers. Also central are psychologists, audiologists, speech and language therapists/pathologists, and many other professionals, as well as parents and carers.

Conclusion

Impairment in reading/dyslexia, impairment in written expression/dysgraphia, developmental co-ordination disorder/dyspraxia, and impairment in mathematics/dyscalculia may be grouped as disorders of learning and co-ordination. They can be understood in relation to their definitions, prevalence, causal factors, identification and assessment, and co-existing conditions. Provision can be identified in terms of curriculum and related assessment, pedagogy, resources, therapy and care, and organisation.

References

American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Washington DC, APA.

Department of Education and Skills (2005) Data collection by special educational need(2nd edition). London, DfES. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/773...