Study Guide to The Philosophy of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke

Intelligent Education

• Publisher: Influence Publishers
• Year: 2020
• ISBN:
  9781645422754
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Guías de estudio
• Subtopic: Guías de estudio

A comprehensive study guide offering in-depth explanation, essay, and test prep for Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. These two English philosophers are recognized for being some of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. As two of the most prominent philosophers of the 17th century, Hobbes and Locke illustrated opposing and rebellious views on the ideal form of government and sovereignty, that included religion and empiricism. Moreover, these works have paved the way for modern theories such as the formulation of social contract theory and liberalism. This Bright Notes Study Guide includes notes and commentary on literary classics such as Leviathan and Treatise of Civil Government, helping students to thoroughly explore the reasons these works have stood the literary test of time. Each Bright Notes Study Guide contains: - Introductions to the Author and the Work
- Character Summaries
- Plot Guides
- Section and Chapter Overviews
- Test Essay and Study Q&As The Bright Notes Study Guide series offers an in-depth tour of more than 275 classic works of literature, exploring characters, critical commentary, historical background, plots, and themes. This set of study guides encourages readers to dig deeper in their understanding by including essay questions and answers as well as topics for further research.

INTRODUCTION TO THOMAS HOBBES

PREFACE

This commentary covers Books I and II of Hobbe’s Leviathan and Locke’s Treatise of Civil Government, which contain the authors’ chief political ideas. It is fitting that Hobbes and Locke should be considered together for at least three reasons. First, they are probably the two greatest political philosophers England ever produced. Second, they lived only a generation or two apart. Their lives put end to end span the turbulent seventeenth century (Hobbes was born in 1588; Locke died in 1704), a century that saw the fall of monarchy, its restoration, and its final adjustment with the demands for freedom of the rising middle class. Third, and perhaps most important, there are several points on which they see eye to eye. Locke was a promising student in London when Hobbes’ greatest work, the Leviathan, first appeared in print. Locke read it carefully, and it surely had an enormous influence on his own thinking. Many of its views he adopted as his own - the essential rationality of man, the theories of natural right, natural law, the state of nature, and the social contract. Both Hobbes and Locke believed that the state existed as an artificial creation of man to protect and preserve the interests of the individual. This stress on individualism constituted a radical departure from the tradition of political philosophy, which looked upon the state either as the highest ethical good, an object of love and patriotism, or as a divinely ordained instrument of restraint and discipline, which men were to submit to with awe and religious reverence.

Summaries such as those that follow - no matter how good - are at best only a guide to and not a substitute for the original works. The reader is therefore advised to make this the starting point of his investigation of the ideas of these two great philosophers, and to read for himself how these ideas are expressed. An effort has been made to present appropriate quotations from the texts to give the reader a flavor of the authors’ writing styles. Finally, the reader should be warned that no philosopher is immune from criticism. They all contradict themselves at one time or other in the course of their writings. We should only ask how does the contradiction come about? and how serious is it? To the extent possible, these contradictions have been exposed, not in the spirit of showing up the philosopher, but in the interest of academic integrity. It is hoped this will serve not to confuse the reader, but to strengthen his critical faculties.

EARLY LIFE

Hobbes was born two months premature near Malmesbury, England, on April 5, 1588, a day on which the Spanish Armada was nearing the English coast. His mother’s fright at the approaching fleet is said to have been responsible for the early birth. Late in life, Hobbes said of the occasion that his mother “brought forth twins - myself and fear.”

It has been suggested that fear was Hobbes’ lifelong companion. There’s a famous passage in the Leviathan where he speaks of the obligation of subjects to bear arms for the sovereign, but he is willing to make exception “for natural timorousness, not only to women … but to men of feminine courage.” Scholars tend to suspect that Hobbes counted himself among the men of feminine courage, and therefore an unsuitable candidate for military duty. In a more serious vein, it should be pointed out that fear is the key passion in Hobbes’ political system, which uses the human passions as its foundation.

Hobbes’ father was a poor, boorish, and ignorant vicar, who one day lost his job for quarreling with a neighboring pastor at the church door. He fled in disgrace, leaving his wife and three children behind him. The vicar’s brother, a prosperous glover, looked after the children. He became especially interested in the precocious young Thomas, who at the age of four was able to read and write, at six learned Greek and Latin, and at fourteen translated Euripides’ Medea into Latin iambics.

When he was fifteen, Hobbes entered Oxford, which was described by a contemporary as a place where young men became debauched. The youthful Hobbes turned out to be something of a problem student. He had no use for the university, or for the Aristotelian and Scholastic philosophy taught there. Throughout his life, Hobbes, who must have inherited some of his father’s irascible temper, heaped scorn upon the English universities with their “vapid” curricula, and attacked Aristotle as the purveyor of “erroneous doctrines.” But he owed more to both than he would ever acknowledge.

INFLUENCES

In 1610, now twenty - two and in spite of himself the holder of an Oxford degree, Hobbes started an association with the aristocratic Cavendish family that was to have an enormous impact upon his life. The Cavendishes (the Earls of Devonshire) were extremely influential. Through them, he met Bacon, Harvey, and other great men of his time. It was with Lord Hardwick, later the second Earl of Devonshire - whom he was hired to tutor and soon befriended - that he first embarked on a tour of Europe. He returned there many times during the course of his life. On the Continent, Hobbes was exposed to the works of Galileo and Kepler. He later visited Galileo in Florence. While in Paris, where he lived many years, his circle of acquaintances included the mathematician Mersenne and the philosopher Descartes. Hobbes was among those privileged to read Descartes’ Meditations before publication. He wrote objections to it, which Descartes published with rebuttals as an appendix. Descartes thought little of Hobbes as a metaphysician, but upon reading De Cive declared him to be the foremost political philosopher of the day.

WORKS

When Hobbes returned to England in 1637, he had decided to develop a systematic theory of politics. Up to that time his published works consisted of a translation of Thucydides and some abstracts of Aristotle. He was nearly fifty, but his greatest achievements still lay ahead.

So he set to work and produced a preliminary sketch of his political system. This was passed around to his immediate circle of friends, but not published at the time. The ideas it contained were radical, and this was no time for radical ideas. England was in turmoil. The parliament was becoming increasingly bolder in its challenge to royal power. Tensions would soon erupt into bloody civil war, which was destined to end in the victory of Cromwell’s Parliamentary forces and the downfall of the monarchy. Hobbes, whose own leanings were monarchist, feared that his political views would get him into trouble, and in 1640 hurried back to Paris where he sat out the war.

There he wrote De Cive, which he published in 1642. De Cive is the first full exposition of Hobbes’ views on government and the obligations of citizens. It promptly infuriated the clergy for what they considered to be its atheism in putting secular above ecclesiastical authority. So passionate was their attack that it cost Hobbes his job tutoring the future King Charles II, then exiled in Paris.

So Hobbes set to work on Leviathan, which includes not only two dispassionate sections on man and society, but also a highly emotional and virulent attack against the forces of religion, which he refers to irreverently as “The Kingdom of Darkness.” Needless to say, Leviathan met with disapproval. It angered royalists in exile, who thought it a justification of Cromwell and it angered the clergy, both English and French, for its prejudice against the church.

Once again, Hobbes was forced to flee from danger. This time he made his way secretly across the Channel to London, where he declared his submission to Cromwell and withdrew from politics. The restoration of the Stuarts in 1660 also brought the restoration of Hobbes’ favor with his sovereign. Charles II, who had been his personal friend, even granted Hobbes a monthly pension, but never got around to paying it, possibly because of the clergy’s continuing animosity toward the philosopher.

OLD AGE

Hobbes remained active in his old age. He had always fancied himself a mathematician, and he occupied himself a great deal of the time in a futile effort to square the circle. Once he became locked in a controversy with an Oxford mathematician named John Wallis, and got much the worse of it. He also spent some time carping at the universities for teaching the “false” principles of the classic philosophers, rather than his own. When he was eighty - four he wrote his autobiography in Latin verse, and in the next two years translated the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer.

Hobbes was a good - sized man, over six feet tall, red - haired, hot - tempered, generous, witty, and a congenial social companion. He is said to have walked every day and sung every night. At seventy-five, he still played an occasional game of tennis. He admitted to being drunk a hundred times during his life, and, although never married, had one illegitimate daughter, for whom he provided conscientiously.

He died on December 4, 1679, in Hardwick at the age of ninety - one, after a trip from Chatsworth had sapped his strength and brought on an attack of paralysis.

PHILOSOPHY

Materialism

Hobbes’ philosophy has been commonly described as “materialistic.” He was greatly influenced by Galileo’s mechanistic approach to science. Hobbes conceived of the universe as a gigantic machine governed by the laws of motion. Matter and motion are thought to be the lowest common denominators of reality. Consequently, bodies and their movements are the only legitimate subject matter of philosophy.

Thus, Hobbes’ own philosophy has three major divisions: physics, the study of moving bodies; psychology, the study of the human nervous system; and politics, the study of many human nervous systems interacting. These divisions are represented in the titles of three major works: De Corpore (On Bodies), De Homine (On Man), and De Cive (On the State). The first two parts of Leviathan, the most important of all Hobbes’ works, are devoted to the study of man and the state, respectively.

Method

It is generally recognized that Hobbes was greatly influenced by Euclidean geometry. Although geometry is that branch of mathematics which deals specifically with the relations of points, lines, planes, and solids in space, Hobbes seems to use the term “geometry” in a broad sense to include the entire gamut of mathematical sciences. In any case, it is certain that Hobbes thought geometry to be something glamorous. In Chapter IV of the Leviathan, for instance, he tells us that geometry is “the only science that it hath pleased God hitherto to bestow on Mankind.” And in the following chapter he argues that geometry is the only science that has attained indisputable conclusions: “For there is not one of them that begins his ratiocination from the definitions, or explications of the names they are to use; which is a method that hath been used only in geometry; whose conclusions have been made indisputable.”

Hobbes’ intellectual ambition was to explain all phenomena, including those of man and his government, in terms of matter and motion, and with mathematical precision. But, as an eminent scholar has shown, much of Hobbes’ political thought had been formed in his youth, prior to his intellectual conversion to the science of geometry. Be that as it may, the fact that Hobbes tried to follow the mathematical method in his own examination of politics is beyond question. He started from a set of first principles (or “propositions,” as they are called in geometry), i.e., matter of motion, and then tried to explain all other phenomena from their interaction.

Psychology And Politics

Hobbes’ conception of politics (man in society) is based on his conception of psychology (individual man). According to his materialist psychology, human conduct is a product of human passions, and passions result from a response to motions from external objects. Hobbes says the most dominant passions are fear of violent death and desire for power. These, however, are mere manifestations of man’s most basic impulse, which Hobbes calls the urge of self - preservation. Hobbes asserts that this basic impulse is a right of the individual. He calls it a natural right.

According to Hobbes, this instinct of self - preservation, or so - called natural right, is possessed by all men equally. So broad is its application that it gives men the right to do all things necessary to that preservation, including the right to subdue or destroy others, or possess their goods. But it is obvious that if everyone possesses the right to all things, it comes to nothing, because such total liberty for everyone can only lead to mutual destruction. This is what Hobbes actually conceives the natural state, or condition, of man to be - a state of war of every man against every man, in which their lives are “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.”

But the instinct for self - preservation gives men also the inclination for peace. Thus, the passion of fear - fear of violent death - is still operating. It leads men in the state of war to desire peace. This is where reason comes into play. Reason suggests “articles of peace,” once man’s instinct for self -preservation indicates that peace is the goal to be achieved. So it turns out that man’s peace - inclining passions overcome his war - inclining passions, and reason supplements the dominant passions. It is a victory, not for any one individual, but for the many individuals taken together.

The culmination of the reasoning process, so far as Hobbes’ system is concerned, is the social contract. According to Hobbes, the social contract is the foundation of commonwealth, and, indeed, of all civilization. It comes about when reason directs each man to relinquish his natural right to all things on condition that every other man do the same. Then, since a contract is not a contract unless it can be enforced, reason directs that all parties to the contract agree to set up a sovereign power, with absolute and unconditional authority, to ensure that all parties live up to their part of the contract. The sovereign may be one man or an assembly - Hobbes prefers one man; but it is essential that the sovereign power be unrestricted. The sovereign is the executive, legislative, and judicial power all in one. As legislator and the sole source of law the sovereign determines what is just and unjust, right and wrong, as dictated by the needs of a harmonious social life.

Those who do not voluntarily enter into the social contract, and remain outside of commonwealth, are not bound by the commands of the sovereign, and continue to be in a state of war with one another. This, in fact, according to Hobbes, is the condition in which independent nations find themselves in their relations to one another - in a state of war without benefit of a sovereign power to settle their differences and assure their peace and security.

PLACE IN HISTORY

Like most great thinkers, Hobbes never seems to have doubted his greatness. In fact, he believed himself to be the first true political philosopher, the first to produce a theory of government on a scientific basis. All other philosophers in the entire tradition of political philosophy, he thought, had failed to do so.

Hobbes’ reputation as a philosopher rests on his contribution to psychology, the theory of kn...