Study Guide to The Prince and Other Works by Niccolò Machiavelli

Intelligent Education

• Publisher: Influence Publishers
• Year: 2020
• ISBN:
  9781645423553
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Manuali di studio
• Subtopic: Guide di studio

A comprehensive study guide offering in-depth explanation, essay, and test prep for selected works by notable Italian poet Niccolò Machiavelli. Titles in this study guide include The Prince, Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius, Mandragola, The History of Florence, and The Art of War.As a poet of the Renaissance, Machiavelli is known for critiquing and discussing philosophy and human behavior. Moreover, his controversial political philosophy influenced what would become twentieth-century communism. This Bright Notes Study Guide explores the context and history of Machiavelli's classic work, helping students to thoroughly explore the reasons they have stood the literary test of time. Each Bright Notes Study Guide contains: - Introductions to the Author and the Work
- Character Summaries
- Plot Guides
- Section and Chapter Overviews
- Test Essay and Study Q&AsThe Bright Notes Study Guide series offers an in-depth tour of more than 275 classic works of literature, exploring characters, critical commentary, historical background, plots, and themes. This set of study guides encourages readers to dig deeper in their understanding by including essay questions and answers as well as topics for further research.

INTRODUCTION TO NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI

 

The period from the middle of the fourteenth century to the middle of the sixteenth century is usually termed the Renaissance by historians. The word means “rebirth,” and was coined by nineteenth century writers who saw in the intellectual life of Europe in this period a startling contrast to what had gone before. Whereas the Middle Ages was viewed as a time of religious stress on the next life, the Renaissance was considered a time during which intellectuals had worldly interests. The Medieval man was viewed as little more than one unit in the all-encompassing confines of the Catholic Church, while the man of the Renaissance prized individualism over all else. The man of 1200 was thought to be interested in storing up good works, so as to enjoy paradise; the man of 1500 was more interested in gaining gold and power to enjoy the here and now.

We know now that these distinctions are overstated at best and gross exaggerations at worst. The attributes of the Renaissance were present in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and grew in intensity from the end of the Norse invasions of the tenth and eleventh centuries to the sixteenth. One can scarcely say, then, that the Renaissance was the rebirth of the classical heritage, for that heritage never truly died. It may be said, however, that this period saw the acceleration and fruition of tendencies already present in Europe. Among the more important of these were: the growth of secularism, which is to say the growth in importance of worldly interests; the development of humanism, an intellectual movement that stressed enjoyment of all aspects of life, and especially of the ideas and values of pre-Christian civilizations, such as those of Greece and Rome; the interest in individualism, including stress on man as an end in himself, rather than as merely one cog in the vast machine of the Church. The typical Renaissance man, then, was interested in all things, enjoyed life, strove for worldly acclaim and wealth, and had a deep interest in classical civilizations. Such a man was Machiavelli.

Although the Renaissance spirit infiltrated most parts of Europe, it was strongest in Italy. There, a worldly Papacy acted as patron of the arts; wealthy leaders of city-states attempted to wrench power from their neighbors; middle-class merchants, made wealthy during the Crusades, attempted to become worldly themselves, or failing at that, patronized other worldly men. In Italy, too, the classical spirit was strong; it had never died, even during the period of the Dark Ages. Change was in the air, and with it, the opportunity for power and wealth. Venice, the strongest of the city-states, had great economic power, which it attempted to translate into political control of Italy. The Sforza family of Milan had similar aspirations, as did the Aragonese rulers of Naples. The Papal States, commanding both spiritual and economic power, and the crafty and influential Medicis of Florence, thought along similar lines. Each would willingly sacrifice the others for gold and power.

Shortly before Columbus discovered America, Florence and Naples concluded a secret alliance against Milan. The Sforzas learned of this, and appealed to King Charles VIII of France for aid. In 1494, Charles invaded Italy, initiating a series of wars that did not end until 1559. Charles succeeded in driving the Medicis out of Florence. In their place, Savonarola, a Dominican monk who opposed the worldliness of the Renaissance, ruled with an iron fist. Savonarola dreamed of a unified Italy, but could do little about it; he was killed in 1498, after Charles had died and the merchant aristocrats returned to the city. In 1512, Pope Julius II drove the French from Italy. Florence, which had an alliance with France, was retaken by the Medicis, who punished the republican leaders of the city with death or exile. One of those exiled was Niccolò Machiavelli, then a 43-year-old bureaucrat in the employ of the pro-French Florentines.

THE LIFE OF MACHIAVELLI

Niccolò Machiavelli was born in 1469. His father was a Florentine lawyer and civil servant, who was wealthy enough to provide his son with an adequate education of a classical nature, but lacked the proper connections to gain young Niccolò an important government post when the son showed an interest in government. To further complicate matters, the Machiavellis had a record of opposition to the Medicis. One of Niccolò’s ancestors had been imprisoned for life as a result of his conflicts with the Medici bankers. Niccolò’s father was apparently a supporter of the republic, which in those days and that place meant that he favored political control by a group of the state’s leading citizens. This alone assured both father and son a shaky position under the Medicis, who wished to establish a monarchy in Florence.

Machiavelli grew up during a period of Medici power. Cosimo de Medici gained control of the city in 1434, and ruled it until his death in 1464, four years before Machiavelli’s birth. He was succeeded by Piero the Gouty, who held power for five years. In 1469, control fell to Giuliano and Lorenzo de Medici. In 1478, rival families united in an assassination attempt on both men. Giuliano was killed, but Lorenzo escaped with minor wounds. He recovered, punished his enemies, consolidated his power, and ruled until 1492, when he was succeeded by Piero de Medici. It was Piero who was ousted by Charles VIII in 1494.

The period of Lorenzo’s power has sometimes been called the Augustan Age of the Italian Renaissance, or the Age of Lorenzo. The ruler himself was referred to as Lorenzo the Magnificent. He managed to juggle the uneasy alliance of Italian cities with skill, and effectively neutralized the power of France. While doing this, he also wrote poetry and dabbled in painting, and gathered around him men interested in the arts and letters. Thus, the young Machiavelli grew up during the height of the Italian Renaissance, and in its most important city. Although far from the seats of power because of his family’s politics, he might have known or at least seen such great figures as Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Ghiberti, and Brunelleschi.

Michelangelo was born six years after Machiavelli and Titian eight years after. Yet, despite the fact that he lived at a time and in a place where there was more genius per square mile than at any time since the Periclean Age of Athens, Machiavelli appears to have been uninterested in the arts; he scarcely mentions them in his works. Further, although he was 23 years old at the time of the first voyage to America, he scarcely took note of it, and certainly did not begin to realize its implications. Machiavelli was interested in his city, Italy, and the forces that directly affected both. Little else seemed to catch his eye.

Machiavelli was 25 when Charles VIII invaded Florence, and 29 when Savonarola was burned at the stake. The young man observed both Charles and Savonarola and, as we have discovered from his writings, carefully considered the reasons for their successes and failures. At the same time, he must have been involved in the movements to restore Florence to republican rule. Otherwise, he would not have been so amply rewarded when, after the death of Savonarola, the merchant aristocrats regained control of the city. At that time Machiavelli was named to the important post of Chancellor of the Second Chancery and member of the Council of Ten of Liberty and Peace. In the former post, he was given control over foreign and military affairs, and in the latter, was one of the administrators of Florence. In these posts, he acted as one of the half dozen or so most important men of the city.

Machiavelli served in several special diplomatic assignments, and the reports he sent back to Florence show that he learned his craft well. In these years, his vision and scope expanded from Florence to all of western Europe. In reading his diplomatic reports, one can sense Machiavelli’s intense interests in the question of true power as opposed to appearances. His missions took him to the courts of Emperor Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire and King Louis XII of France. Most important, he visited many of the other Italian city-states, and learned of their internal politics and court intrigues.

While in Rome, Machiavelli may have had conversations with Cesare Borgia, the brilliant, unscrupulous, and underhanded son of Rodrigo Borgia, who was then Pope Alexander VI. The son took after the father; at that time, the Pope was attempting to gain control of all of Italy. In this drive, his son Cesare was his major ally. Cesare destroyed the Orsini and Colonna families of Rome, who had challenged Borgia power. He then turned northward to Romagna, in this way flanking Machiavelli’s city of Florence. Cesare destroyed most of the rulers of this region and, in 1501, became Duke of Romagna. These conquests were accomplished through the use of military force, diplomacy, intrigue, and dissimulation. His sister, Lucrezia, was as important as his army in this campaign. She married three princes of desirable territories, then participated in their murders, all to further the Borgia ambitions.

Cesare turned to the south in 1501. He formed an alliance with France and turned on Naples. At this point, his fortunes took a turn for the worse. Revolts broke out in some of the conquered areas, and although they were put down, dissension remained. In 1503, his father died, and the new Pope Julius II, was hostile to the Borgias. Forming his own armies, the Pope conquered much of central Italy and displaced Cesare as the major political force in Italy. Cesare responded by entering into an alliance with Spain, but Julius pressed on. In 1509, Cesare was arrested at Naples and sent to Spain, where he died the following year.

During this period, Machiavelli watched Cesare carefully, noting his successes and failures, and analyzing the reasons for both. At the same time, he took care to advance his own fortunes. He became personal advisor to Pietro Soderini, who was Gonfalonier (a high civil servant) of Florence from 1502 to 1512.

During this period, Florence was allied with France against Spain, some German states, and Italian forces of the League of Mantua. Realizing that Florence was weak, and could not count on France for substantial aid, Machiavelli urged the military reorganization of the Florentine militia and the establishment of a civilian armed force. This force won a significant victory in 1508-9, when it took Pisa after a siege. In 1512, it was crushed, however, as a Spanish-German-Italian force, with the Medici enemies of the Florentine republic in the van, conquered the home city of Machiavelli. Rightly believing that all supporters of the republic would be punished by Lorenzo de Medici, grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the Florentines welcomed the new prince, expelled the republican leaders, and placed some of them in irons. Machiavelli himself was arrested for treason, and underwent tortures before being released and allowed to go into exile. He returned to his family’s home near San Casciano in Tuscany. Since Lorenzo and his allies were firmly in power, Machiavelli must have realized that, at the age of 43, his public life had drawn to an end.

Still, he could not but hope to return to the seats of power. Since he could not return as a republican ally of the merchant aristocrats who opposed Lorenzo, it would have to be done as an ally of the Medicis. Machiavelli’s terms of exile forbade him to return to Florence, but his words might act for him. Thus, he became an author. From 1512 until his death in 1527, he wrote several important works, of which The Prince and The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius are the most important. Other books were The Art of War and The History of Florence. He also wrote a play, Mandragola, several short sketches, and some poetry. Of these, The Prince has emerged as the classic work on political power, while The Discourses, though not read as often or as carefully, is considered the most complete statement of Machiavelli’s philosophy.

THE PRINCE

If the major reason for Machiavelli’s career as a writer was that of returning him to power, the second most important factor in his literary efforts was that of boredom. After a life spent in the most cultured cities of the Renaissance and among the most powerful people of his time, Machiavelli, still a young man, found himself condemned to live among peasants, woodsmen, and country priests, who were illiterate at worst and unsophisticated at best. In a letter to Vettori, the Florentine ambassador at Rome, he wrote of his life: “I am living in the country since my disgrace. I get up at dawn and go to the little wood where I see what work has been done.” Then Machiavelli describes his mornings: after reading some poetry on the side of a hill, he would have his mid-day meal. Then to the village inn, where he would talk to the local butcher and miller. This once-mighty and highly intellectual leader of men would spend the next few hours “with these boors playing cards or dice; we quarrel over farthings.” With relief, he would leave them in the early evening, and return home to his true friends. He writes:

Before I enter [my study] I take off my rough mud-stained country dress. I put on my royal and curial robes, and enter, decently dressed, the ancient courts of men of old, where I am welcomed kindly and fed on that fare which is mine alone, and for which I was born: where I am not ashamed to address them and ask them for the reasons for their action, and they reply considerately. For two hours I forget all my cares. I know no more trouble, death loses its terrors. I am utterly translated in their company. And since Dante says that we can never attain knowledge unless we retain what we hear, I have noted down the capital I have accumulated from their conversation and composed a little book, The Prince, in which I probe as deeply as I can the consideration of this subject, discussing what a principality is, the variety of such states, how they are won, how they are held, how they are lost.

This, then, is the background for the writing of The Prince. Here we have a man in his mid-forties, who is attuned to the tempos of his time, knows the workings of states, and is interested in the motivations of men. He had been close to the seats of power, and, although a republican, admired Cesare Borgia and Julius II. He was a strong believer in the glories of Florence, but felt even stronger the need for the unification of Italy. Cesare Borgia failed in his attempt to unite the nation, and Julius seemed interested in other matters. At the head of his old city was Lorenzo de Medici, grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Here was the perfect candidate for the role of unifier of Italy. Machiavelli was bored in San Casciano; he yearned to return to Florence. If Lorenzo could be made to realize Machiavelli’s importance, perhaps the exile would be rescinded. Thus, Machiavelli retired to his study and, surrounded by the works of the great classical authors, composed The Prince, which he dedicated to Lorenzo, and, in order both to flatter him and recall past glories, referred to him as Lorenzo the Magnificent. Historians doubt whether Lorenzo ever read the document; in any case, he died in 1519 without ever having been in touch with Machiavelli. The Prince was read by others, however, and was finally published in 1532, five years after its author’s death.

THE PRINCE

TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

CHAPTERS 1 - 6

DEDICATION

Machiavelli notes that anyone who hopes to gain the favor of a prince must present him with a gift. This book is his gift to Lorenzo de Medici. As was the custom, Machiavelli depreciates the book, saying it is unworthy of acceptance. Still, it may prove useful. The author has been close to the seats of power, and has learned how princes gain and lose control of situations and people. He likens himself to a humble landscape painter who surveys the scene from all angles before putting it down on canvas. The Prince must act in the same way; he must “know thoroughly the nature of people” and the people must know him. In this way, the book may prove useful, and may enable Lorenzo to attain the grandeur and good fortune that could be his. Machiavelli is not uninterested in his own fate. If Lorenzo finds the work useful, he may “gaze down from the summit of [his] lofty position toward this humble spot, [he] will recognize the great and unmerited sufferings inflicted on me by a cruel fate.”

Comment

Beneath the flowery phrases of this standard introduction, Machiavelli is seen trying to strike a bargain with Lorenzo. In order to reinforce this offer of an alliance, Machiavelli repeats it in somewhat different terms in the last chapter of the book. In essence, he is saying that Lorenzo views the world from the summit of power, while Machiavelli sees it from the base of the mountain. Lorenzo has the position that may enable him to become powerful, but lacks much needed information. Machiavelli has the information, but lacks the position. One might say they were made for one another. Thus, he suggests that they pool their resources. This is not stated outright for two reasons. In the first place, the style of the Renaissance called for roundabout statements. In addition, Machiavelli himself and his family before him had been enemies of the Medicis. He could scarcely allude to his experience in this role, or his positions of trust in previous Florentine governments.

CHAPTERS I AND II

There are two kinds of states: republics and monarchies. The latter can further be subdivided into two groups: those that are hereditary and have been under the same family for many years, and newly-established ones, which have been acquired through war or good fortune. The author will not concern himself with republics, since he dealt with them elsewhere (Machiavelli is referring to his History of Florence). Instead, he will dwell on monarchies. Hereditary states are easier to maintain than newly-established ones; the people, once used to rule, will not want to change it. Even if deposed, the Prince of a hereditary monarchy may be able to regain his post without much difficulty. The author notes that the Duke of Ferrara was able to withstand the attacks of Venice and even Pope Julius, primarily because the people of Ferrara were accustomed to his rule, and rallied to his cause. Another reason for this affection was the Duke’s support of th...