The Evolution of Compositional Practice for and through Gaming
Mack Enns
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Understanding Game Scoring
The Evolution of Compositional Practice for and through Gaming
Mack Enns
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About This Book
Understanding Game Scoring explores the unique collaboration between gameplay and composition that defines musical scoring for video games.
Using an array of case studies reaching back into the canon of classic video games, this book illuminates the musical flexibility, user interactivity and sound programming that make game scoring so different from traditional modes of composition. Mack Enns explores the collaboration between game scorers and players to produce the final score for a game, through case studies of the Nintendo Entertainment System sound hardware configuration, and game scores, including the canonic scores for Super Mario Bros. (1985) and The Legend of Zelda (1986).
This book is recommended reading for students and researchers interested in the composition and production of video game scores, as well as those interested in ludo-musicology.
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Have you ever turned a video game into a musical instrument? That is, have you ever decided to â temporarily â change your competitive goals to musical ones, while playing a game? My guess is that I am not alone in indulging in this activity, because gaming is a mimetic art form that involves different modes of cognitive and sensory interaction. One of these modes of interaction is musical, but the musical experience of gaming is different from traditional music listening, and the way video game music composers or âgame scorersâ write music for games is different from traditional musical scoring activities.
In this book, I study the act of composing music for â and through â gaming, or what I refer to as âgame scoring.â As with film scoring, game scoring supports and elucidates the visual aspects of a broader narrative medium â in this case, video games. However, any further resemblances between game scoring and film scoring are illusory, in my opinion.1 A host of unique technical and aesthetic priorities and concerns faces game scorers today. Most obviously, game scores must remain flexible and interactive in response to gameplay. They are only finally ârealizedâ â that is, game scores only ever exist as something other than imperceptible digital bits â through gameplay. Game scorers also compose for particular sound hardware configurations, and so their compositional activity is structured in its entirety by the limited set of aesthetic possibilities each consoleâs particular audio processing Unit (APU) affords. If it cannot be programmed into a consoleâs APU, it simply cannot exist as part of a game score. As such, game scoring most closely resembles software programming.2
Actually, game scoring is software programming. This does not mean, though, that it is therefore somehow aesthetically impoverished, being so limited by the dictates of a single variety of modern consumer electronics. In fact, since game scoring is structured in its entirety by gaming technology, it constitutes a unique compositional mode that should be understood as a variety of so-called âaleatoric composition.â3 Aleatoric composition includes all compositional activity in which one or more musical elements are left to chance, as well as compositions in which some degree of improvisational freedom is afforded to performers. Musikalisches WĂŒrfelspiel (âmusical dice gameâ), for instance, qualifies as aleatoric because it uses dice to randomly âgenerateâ music from pre-composed options.4 In this case, the chance operation involved in the musicâs composition is a roll of the dice, and the element of composition that chance determines is the order in which the pre-composed sections of the piece are performed.5 Similarly, any composition with improvisatory sequences is at least partially aleatoric. For example, Ornette Colemanâs Free Jazz (1961) was the first album-length improvisation, making it at least partially aleatoric.
Game scoring includes both of these âtypesâ of aleatoric composition. That is, a game score involves both chance operations and a degree of improvisation. In fact, game scoring is a peculiar type of composition because the âperformerâ of a game score is not a musical performer but a âludalâ one â a âgamerâ apparently involved in a non-musical activity. Sound, visuals and controls, or âhaptics,â inform the gamerâs gameplay choices, and so game scores are open to improvisatory and chance operations that only the combination of these elements enable. In other words, game scorers arguably collaborate with players to produce the final score for a game. In Super Mario Bros. (1985), for instance, the thematic content of each compositionâs conclusion is determined by whether or not players successfully complete a level. If players âbeatâ a level, the score triggers the âFlagpole Fanfareâ theme, a triumphant ascending melody (see Figure 1.1). Players who fail to conquer that same level, on the other hand, hear the âDeath Sound,â a comedic descending riff instead (see Figure 1.2).6 Thus, whether or not the âFlagpole Fanfareâ theme ever sounds, and how often, is up to the gamer.
To be clear, my definition of âgame scoringâ encompasses the organization of sound, its encoding as software via programming and, most importantly, its actualization through gameplay. I make this distinction to emphasize the difference between what I call âgame scores,â which are actively created through gameplay, and video game soundtracks. I will explore this difference in greater detail in Chapter 5 of this book.
As a means of concretizing the theoretical terrain I intend to cover in this book, I offer the following case study, specifically, of Richard Vreelandâs game score for the 2012 Xbox Live Arcade âpuzzle-platformâ game FEZ. This theoretical terrain is drawn largely from work by Whalen (2004) and Collins (2013), both of whom pose salient questions about the interactive nature of game scoring. Whalenâs (2004: 2) âPlay Along â An Approach to Videogame Musicâ relates the concept of player immersion to game scoring:
The interactive element of videogames [sic] requires its own analysis [âŠ] Cognitive theories of perception and questions of immersion versus engagement as a means of understanding âflowâ or pleasurability in games allows for a richer understanding of the complex communication involved in videogame [sic] music.7
Collins (2013) suggests that new media, such as video games, provide instances of interactive sound that are unique for their diffused sources of composition. In interactive sound design, she argues, not only does the composer have a hand in the compositional process, but also the designer, programmer and even the gamer. Collinsâ (2013) argument is useful as a basis for a study of game scoring, and so will provide a model for my âludo-musicologicalâ analysis of game scoring. Ludo-musicology is a relatively new field of research which focuses exclusively on video game music, as opposed to music composed for the non-performative visual arts or non-interactive film, for instance. As Collins (2013) notes, and as I will now demonstrate, it is the âperformativeâ and âinteractiveâ aspects of video games that create the unique challenges and concerns that game scorers must address through their work.
Disasterpeace and FEZ: a case study of game scoring
In what follows, I examine some aspects of the compositional process Richard Vreeland â also known as Disasterpeace â undertook to compose his celebrated score for FEZ, a puzzle-platformer video game released for Xbox Live Arcade in 2012. All of what follows, including screenshots of and technical information about the music system for FEZ, is drawn from a conference presentation entitled âPhilosophy of Music Design in Games,â given by Vreeland himself at the 2012 Game Audio Network Guild Summit.8 This case study is by no means an exhaustive examination. Here I simply examine some aspects of game scoring, and demonstrate that they resemble software programming more than anything traditionally described by the moniker of âmusic composition.â
The world of FEZ is highly dynamic. Its âlevelsâ consist of non-Euclidean9 spaces known as âRooms.â At the outset of the game, Gomez, the gameâs âprotagonist,â is a two-dimensional creature who lives in a two-dimensional world. Much like the Mario Bros., the protagonists in the classic 8- and 16-bit Super Mario Bros. âplatformerâ series, Gomez has impressive jumping abilities that serve as the main element of gameplay in a world composed of various types of platforms. Eventually, after a short âtutorialâ introduction, Gomez encounters a mysterious being known as the Hexahedron, who grants him a âmagical fez hatâ that allows him to perceive a third dimension, and that allows players to rotate the gameplay perspective at will, ninety degrees at a time. As players direct Gomez to experiment with his new abilities, the Hexahedron unexpectedly fractures and explodes, causing the game to glitch, freeze and reboot, complete with a Basic Input/Output System, or (BIOS) screen. Gomez awakens in his room with his ability to perceive and manipulate a third dimension intact, and is charged with the task of recovering the scattered fragments of the Hexahedron before the world is torn apart.
Even after Gomez acquires the ability to perceive the third dimension, gameplay in FEZ remains largely two-dimensional. Depth, or the Z-axis, is only visible to the player in the rotation of perspectives, and is not a factor in the actual obstacles and chasms that Gomez must traverse. The player must manipulate these perspectives to explore the world of FEZ and collect 32 cubes in the form of âcube bits,â âwhole cubesâ or âanti-cubes.â In so doing, Gomez performs actions that would normal...