Intelligent Modeling, Prediction, and Diagnosis from Epidemiological Data

COVID-19 and Beyond

Siddhartha Bhattacharyya, Siddhartha Bhattacharyya

• Publisher: Chapman and Hall/CRC
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000474732
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Computer Science
• Subtopic: Data Modelling & Design
• Index: Computer Science

Intelligent Modeling, Prediction, and Diagnosis from Epidemiological Data: COVID-19 and Beyond is a handy treatise to elicit and elaborate possible intelligent mechanisms for modeling, prediction, diagnosis, and early detection of diseases arising from outbreaks of different epidemics with special reference to COVID-19. Starting with a formal introduction of the human immune systems, this book focuses on the epidemiological aspects with due cognizance to modeling, prevention, and diagnosis of epidemics. In addition, it also deals with evolving decisions on post-pandemic socio-economic structure.

The book offers a comprehensive coverage of the most essential topics, including:

• A general overview of pandemics and their outbreak behavior

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• A detailed overview of CI techniques

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• Intelligent modeling, prediction, and diagnostic measures for pandemics

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• Prognostic models

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• Post-pandemic socio-economic structure

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The accompanying case studies are based on available real-world data sets.

While other books may deal with this COVID-19 pandemic, none features topics covering the human immune system as well as influences on the environmental disorder due to the ongoing pandemic.

The book is primarily intended to benefit medical professionals and healthcare workers as well as the virologists who are essentially the frontline fighters of this pandemic. In addition, it also serves as a vital resource for relevant researchers in this interdisciplinary field as well as for tutors and postgraduate and undergraduate students of information sciences.

1 Human Immune System and Infectious Disease

Faruk Bin Poyen

The University of Burdwan

DOI: 10.1201/9781003158684-1

CONTENTS

1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Human Immune System
   1. 1.2.1 Components of the Immune System
   2. 1.2.2 Disease and Treatment of the Immune System
3. 1.3 Infectious Diseases
   1. 1.3.1 Occurrences of Pandemic
4. 1.4 Vaccines—Strengthening of the Adaptive Immune System:
   1. 1.4.1 Vaccine Manufacturing
   2. 1.4.2 Working of Vaccines
   3. 1.4.3 Vaccine Administration
   4. 1.4.4 Current Approved Vaccines against COVID-19
5. 1.5 Conclusion
6. References

1.1 Introduction

For any living organism, it is absolutely essential to protect itself from both the visible predators and threats as well as the attacks from microbial organisms that are primarily responsible for ailments and organ failures, eventually leading to death. Over millions of years of evolution, Homo sapiens have come on top of all the other living multicellular organisms and the single-cellular viruses and established their superiority over the entire animal kingdom. One interesting trivia about virus is that it does not qualify as a living organism but a packet of genetic information evolving through natural selection. All living organisms have their own defense mechanisms against other microorganisms, but the human race is blessed with the gift of superior intelligence with which they develop vaccines and drugs and medicines to keep the otherwise dreadful entities at bay to a great extent. However, it is a continuous battle that the human race always has indulged in to keep itself healthy and safe from falling prey to physically more superior predators and functionally more complex microorganism like bacteria, viruses, parasites, and worms. The human body is made up of cells that come together based on their functionalities to form organs, and subsequently organs form organ systems to perform various specific tasks for proper sustenance of the body. The hierarchical build-up from cells to organisms to kingdoms is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

FIGURE 1.1 Hierarchical organization of the species.

As defined by the US National Library of Medicine, an organ is defined as an exclusive anatomic structure comprising an assemblage of tissues functioning together to accomplish precise purposes. There are about twelve organ systems in the human body.^[1] As a quick reference for the readers, the twelve organ systems are tabulated in Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1 Summary of Human Organ Systems and Their Functions

Sl. No.	System Name	Function	Principal Organs
1.	Cardiovascular System	Circulation of blood in and out of the heart. Transportation of nutrients. Body temperature regulation. Removal of metabolic waste products. Blood clotting to prevent bleeding.	Heart Blood vessel Blood
2.	Respiratory System	Pulmonary ventilation, i.e., inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide. Gaseous exchange between bloodstream and lungs.	Lungs Nasal cavity Larynx Pharynx Trachea Bronchial tubes Air sacs.
3.	Digestive System	Ingestion of solid food. Digestion of food. Absorption of nutrients. Defecation of waste material.	Mouth Esophagus Stomach Liver Gall bladder Pancreas Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus
4.	Urinary or Excretory System	Waste product removal. Regulation of body pH. Balance of body fluids. Blood pressure regulation.	Kidney Urethra Urinary bladder Ureter
5.	Nervous System	Control of entire body activities. Sensing of external stimulus. Information processing.	Brain Spinal cord Nerves Sensory organs (visual, olfactory, hearing, taste, touch)
6.	Skeletal System	Body chassis. Structural support. Protection of vital organs. Blood formation.	Bones Cartilages Ligaments Tendons Bone marrow
7.	Muscular System	Body movement. Body heat production.	Muscles Cardiac muscles. Smooth muscles
8.	Reproductive System	Production of eggs and sperm. Production of off-spring.	Ovaries Testes Genitals Prostate Mammary gland
9.	Integumentary System	Thermal regulation. Protection of exterior body. Connection to sensory receptors. Regulation of body’s water loss. Protection from UV rays. Protection against infectious organisms.	Skin Hair Nails Exocrine glands (mammary, mucous, sweat, salivary gland, ceruminous gland, lacrimal gland, sebaceous gland).
10.	Endocrine System	Hormone secretion to control metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, and body activities.	Hypothalamus. Pituitary gland Pineal gland Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal gland Ovaries Testes
11.	Lymphatic System	Formation of White Blood Cell. Return of lymph to blood. Aid in immune response.	Spleen Lymph node Lymphatic vessel Thymus Tonsil
12.	Immune System	Innate and adaptive immune responses. Record of microbes. Destruction of compromised and infected cells.	No specific organ Network of biological processes

Out of these twelve systems, the immune system in conjunction with the lymphatic system takes up the responsibility to fight against germs and other harmful foreign elements and keep the body fit and healthy. However, the lymphatic and the immune systems are not exactly the same as they perform related yet different functions. More accurately said, the lymphatic system acts as a sub-system of the immunity system, and its principal functions are maintaining the body fluid levels, eradicating cellular waste, and digesting body fats. The “lymph” (Latin for “water”) flows through the network of capillaries and vessels, and nodes throughout the body. This “lymph” is very vital for the immunity system operability as it transports the various infection-fighting agents in the form of white blood cells across the body.^[2,3,4,5]

1.2 Human Immune System

The sole responsibility of the immune system is to protect the body against all kinds of diseases and potentially all harmful microorganisms and foreign bodies. It guards our body against bacteria, viruses, and parasites and has the ability to distinguish between the healthy cells and the infected ones. Two terms are particularly important while discussing the immune system: pathogen and antigen. A pathogen can be a bacteria, protozoa, worm, fungi, or virus that can make us severely sick. An antigen is a protein substance that is found of the surface of pathogens or body cells and is toxic in nature and can cause ailment. Antigens are basically of three types, i.e., exogenous, endogenous, and auto-antigens.^[6]

The human body has two types of the immune system: innate immunity, one a child is born with, and adaptive immunity, which is formed when the body is exposed to a foreign entity. The skin, skin oils, mucus, enzymes, stomach acid, and chemical components like interleukin-1 and interferon form the part of the innate immunity. In case the body detects a threat from any foreign object that has breached the body, specific antibodies are created to neutralize the threat. This mechanism is called adaptive immunity. Even after the antibody has neutralized the threat, the system remembers the threat,...