Cameras at War

Photo Gear that Captured 100 Years of Conflict - From Crimea to Korea

John Wade

• Publisher: Pen & Sword Military
• Year: 2020
• ISBN:
  9781526760111
• Topic: Historia
• Subtopic: Historia militar y marítima

A comprehensive history of the development and use of cameras in recording British military conflicts from the 1850s to the 1950s. Books about war and the pictures that came out of conflict usually concentrate on the picture content. But behind every picture there is a camera—and that's what this book is about. Profusely illustrated throughout with pictures of the cameras, rather than the pictures they took, it looks at one hundred years of conflict from the Crimean War to the Korean War. It begins in the days when a photographer needed to be more of a scientist than an artist, such were the difficulties of shooting and processing any photograph. It ends with the cameras whose compact dimensions, versatility and ease of use meant that photographers could largely forget the science and concentrate on the art. Some cameras simply recorded events. Others defined and changed the way those events proceeded. These were the cameras that went to war, and this is their story. Praise for Cameras at War "An amazing collection of superb photographs beginning with some from the Crimean War—coupled with a brilliant narrative that emphasizes the use of photography to record conflict. Where would we be without such evidentiary mementoes?" — Books Monthly (UK)

Chapter 1

The Early Years

What is generally acknowledged to be the world’s first photograph was taken by Frenchman Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1826. The process he used involved a pewter plate, coated with a substance called bitumen of Judea, and exposed in a device derived from a camera obscura, an aid employed by artists to project an image onto a screen in an effort to understand composition and perspective. At the end of an all-day exposure in the adapted camera obscura, the bitumen had hardened and turned white where light had struck it. The remaining soft bitumen was then washed away with lavender oil and the base metal darkened by treatment with iodine vapour. Thus the highlights appeared white and the shadows were rendered black, producing a crude direct positive image. The camera and its associated image processing were somewhat impractical and their use in times of conflict could never have been feasible.

The camera used by Niépce to produce the first photograph. It would have been highly impractical for any form of war photography.

Daguerreotype cameras

The possibility of using cameras in wartime became viable, though not overly practical, with the announcement, in 1839, of the daguerreotype process. This first truly practical method of photography came courtesy of another Frenchman named Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre. Because of the difficulty of using the process, daguerreotype cameras were employed mostly for studio work, when the subject of a portrait sat with his or her head held in a clamp to prevent movement during the necessarily long exposure times. Given that, it’s difficult to believe that the resulting images, known as daguerreotypes, were ever made outside of a studio, let alone anywhere near a war zone. Consider what was involved merely to create a daguerreotype.

The photographer had to first make the plate on which the image would be recorded. For this, a copper sheet was coated with silver, then cleaned and polished using pumice and olive oil. Next, by the light of a candle, and in an airtight box, the plate was exposed to iodine crystals. The fumes combined with the silver on the plate to form a thin, light-sensitive layer of silver iodide. When the plate had taken on a golden-yellow colour it was exposed to bromine fumes to make it more sensitive, and was then ready for the camera.

Once the exposure had been made, the image had to be developed. Once again, using an airtight box, mercury was heated in a dish over a lamp. The exposed plate was then slotted face down into the box, allowing fumes to rise from the heated mercury and react with the silver iodide to form a white amalgam where light had struck the surface. The result was a positive image on a mirror-like silver surface.

The cameras that used this complicated process are best exemplified by considering Daguerre’s own camera, made for him by his brother-in-law Alphonse Giroux, a French art restorer and cabinetmaker, with a lens made by Parisian optician and instrument maker Charles Chevalier. The camera was made of wood and comprised two boxes, one of which slid inside the other. The silver-plated copper plates on which its images were produced measured 6½ × 8½ inches, in imperial measurements, and that size thereafter became known as whole plate, one of the standard sizes for photographic images. The lens was a simple plano-convex design, which meant it was curved on one side and flat on the other. Its image was focused on a screen on the back of the camera by sliding the inner box, containing the focusing screen, backwards and forwards inside the outer box. A mirror was hinged to the back of the camera at 45 degrees, as an aid to the photographer who could look down into it to see a right-way-up image, as opposed to the upside-down image that the lens projected onto the focusing screen.

The daguerreotype camera that introduced the first viable method of photography.

The shutter was no more than a flap across the lens that was moved to one side to make the exposure. Exposure time, due to the slow lenses and low sensitivity of the plates, ranged from a few seconds to several minutes. Because the daguerreotype process produced a direct positive with no intermediary negative to correct the lens’s natural image, the picture was laterally reversed, unless a prism was placed on the front of the lens to correct it.

Later, daguerreotype cameras became more sophisticated, while better lenses meant exposure times could be reduced. But essentially, the overall process remained complicated and time-consuming. Even so, there is evidence of daguerreotypes being made during the Mexican-American War, an armed conflict between the two countries that was waged from 1846 to 1848. One of the earliest wartime photographs was taken in 1847 by an American daguerreotype photographer. It showed American troops riding into the Mexican city of Saltillo. Given the length of exposures in the daguerreotype process the photographer is likely to have persuaded the soldiers on horseback to stand as still as possible while the exposure was made. To the side of the image, a civilian looking out of a window and another walking away from the camera are both rendered slightly blurred because of their movement during the long exposure. During his time with the military, this now unknown photographer took pictures of army officers, Mexican civilians and battlefields. The restrictions of the process prevented him from capturing actual battles.

The calotype process

The daguerreotype process was followed by the calotype process, the brainchild of William Henry Fox Talbot – more generally known simply as Fox Talbot – who was an amateur scientist and Squire of the Manor in the English town of Lacock in Wiltshire. Initially, Fox Talbot’s pictures were made by a process called photogenic drawing, in which the image was exposed until it began to actually appear on sensitised paper, necessitating long exposure times. In 1835, four years before Daguerre’s announcement, Fox Talbot used this process in a tiny camera to produce the world’s first negative.

Replica of one of Fox Talbot’s cameras, used to produce the world’s first negative.

The scientist’s experiments led him to a process that involved coating a sheet of paper with silver chloride, a chemical compound that is sensitive to light. When exposed in a suitable camera, the areas hit by light turned dark and the greater the intensity of the light, the darker the tone. In this way, a negative image was produced. When this was placed in contact with a second sheet of sensitised paper and exposed to light, the result was a contact print that showed a positive image.

Fox Talbot’s significant breakthrough, one that would affect the future of photography, came about with the discovery of what was known as the latent image. It meant that the paper did not have to be exposed for the duration previously required for an image to appear. Instead, the paper could be removed from the camera sooner, even though it appeared there was no image on it. The negative image only appeared when the paper was developed in gallic acid, which accelerated the reaction of the silver chloride to light, and led to the formation of the previously invisible – or latent – image. Immediately exposure times were shortened. Once the image had been developed, it was then fixed in a solution of sodium hyposulfite, which negated its sensitivity to light to ensure it remained stable and became no darker when viewed in normal daylight.

In 1840, a year after Daguerre’s announcement, Fox Talbot introduced his calotype process. It was the first time that a photographer had seen the importance of producing an intermediary negative, from which many positive images could be made, rather than producing a one-off direct positive image. It proved to be a photographic method that continued, in various forms, right up until the dawn of the digital age. Again, it was not a process that loaned itself readily to war photography, although there is evidence of calotypes being used to photograph military leaders in times of conflict. The cameras used to expose Fox Talbot’s negatives followed the same kind of style used by daguerreotype photographers: a lens at the front, a holder for the paper negative at the back and a method of moving one in relation to the other to focus the image.

The next step forward was to coat the photographic emulsion onto glass. That resulted in more sensitive photographic plates, which led to more practical and faster shutter speeds. This in turn meant much shorter exposure times. Only then did taking cameras into war zones become truly practical for the first time, and the first conflict to be properly documented with this new method of photography was the Crimean War.

Chapter 2

The Crimean War

The Crimean War began in 1853 when Russia invaded the autonomous regions of Moldavia and Walachia, part of the Ottoman Empire that was strongly supported by British foreign policy. Britain was concerned for its merchant activity in the area. At the same time, along with France and Austria-Hungary, Britain regarded the Russian move as an expansionist threat. The war was fought from October 1853, although Britain and France didn’t take part until 1854. It ended in February 1856, when Russia conceded defeat to the alliance of France, Britain, Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire.

With early forms of glass plate photography making the use of a camera in a war zone more practical than before, this became the first major conflict to be comprehensively documented by photography. Even so, the cameras and the processes needed to create actual images were far from easy to use.

Wet plate cameras

Two years before the outbreak of the Crimean War, photography on glass plates – a practice that continued well into the middle of the twentieth century – began with the wet collodion process. It was invented in 1851 by English artist, sculptor and photographer Frederick Scott Archer. Combined with the photographic emulsion he had formulated, the process cut exposure times drastically. Like the daguerreotype process before it, however, the wet collodion process was slow and awkward to use. Briefly, here’s how it worked.

Before setting off, the photographer soaked cotton wool in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, which when dry gave him guncotton. Dissolving this in a mixture of ether and alcohol produced collodion, with which he ventured forth with his camera, a set of clear glass plates and a mobile darkroom. On reaching his location, the photographer retired to his darkroom, where he washed one piece of glass in alcohol and powdered pumice. The previously made collodion, along with a solution of potassium iodide, was poured over the glass, ensuring that it covered it evenly. By the light of a candle, the plate was then lowered into a bath of silver nitrate and water. Removing it after a few minutes, it was ready to be inserted in the camera and used while wet. After exposure, the plate was returned to the darkroom where, still wet, it was developed with pyrogallic acid, fixed and washed. Prints were later made from the so produced glass negative using silver chloride or albumen printing paper. Mobile darkrooms, so necessary for the process to work, might be as small as a light-tight box on wheels, or as large as a horse-drawn wagon.

The cameras that used the wet plate process were mostly made of wood with the lens in a panel at the front and a plate holder at the rear. For focusing purposes, the lens was required to move backwards and forwards in relation to the plate holder, and this movement was achieved in one of two ways. One method was to link the two parts of the camera with bellows, which folded like a concertina as the lens panel was moved back and forth. An alternative style involved two boxes in which a box slid inside a slightly larger box, with a lens at the front of one and the plate holder at the back of the other. The back of the camera also incorporated a ground-glass focusing screen, which could be removed or set aside for the insertion of the plate holder. Images on the focusing screen were rendered upside down by the lens and were viewed by the photographer with his head under a large hood made of lightproof cloth. In most wet plate cameras, the lens contained apertures, which either dropped into place via a slot in the lens barrel, or were on a rotating disc. Exposure was made, not with a shutter as...