Ideology and Welfare

Gary Taylor

• Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic
• Year: 2006
• Print ISBN: 9780333929308
• eBook ISBN: 9781350313392
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Social Work
• Index: Social Sciences

This book introduces students to the diversity of theoretical perspectives on welfare, both illuminating the distinctiveness of each ideology and highlighting important continuities in thought. It goes on to illustrate how these theories are reflected in and challenge the development of welfare policy.

1

Introduction

The aim of this book is to outline a variety of ideological perspectives on welfare and to consider how these ideas are reflected in a range of social policies. It is important to realise at the outset that ideas have an important part to play in setting the tone and defining the parameters of political activity and that when governments develop their policies they often do so within constantly changing ideological frameworks. Ideologies do not stand still, nor do they develop in isolation of the policies and debates engineered by governments. Ideologies develop as a result of successes and failures of government initiatives and in response to circumstances that can sometimes appear beyond the control of government. This book looks at ideological debates about the role of the state in tending to the general welfare of the citizens and concentrates, in particular, on the development of ideas and policies in such areas as the benefits system, housing, health care and education. Ideologies provide us with numerous interpretations of economic, social and political life. We can pose questions about who should be responsible for financing health care and to what extent the state should provide benefits, subsidise housing or provide education. It is often the case that the answers to these questions owe more to our ideological assumptions about the character of humanity than to distinct views on social issues. Each ideology has its own distinctive way of viewing human characteristics, of interpreting economic and social affairs, of considering the legitimate functions of the state and of challenging and changing the way we live. By looking at ideologies, we have access to a range of critical perspectives on contemporary society and a broad spectrum of possibilities for the future.

The nature of ideology

Ideologies are often thought to have descriptive and prescriptive features because they describe social reality and suggest ways to change it. Their descriptions of reality, however, will be formulated in accordance with the principles they value. Socialists, for example, have traditionally concentrated upon the effects of society upon the working class, whereas liberals are more likely to focus upon the rights and potential of the individual. The slant they place upon describing social reality thus provides a springboard for their proposals and a clue to their visions of how society should be. It is apparent that they only put forward solutions to the problems they identify and that a conservative vision of how society should be organised is not designed to remedy problems identified by liberals or socialists. In some ways, ideologies are attempts to create a self-contained vision of how society is and how it should be. Each ideology identifies a limited number of problems and a limited number of solutions. Whereas Marxists identify key problems with capitalism and look for ways to undermine what they consider to be an unjust system, conservatives will focus upon its strengths and seek to find ways to stabilise capitalism. The solutions offered by ideologies make sense only when considered alongside their views on existing society. It has been argued that the core of an ideology lies in its particular image of how society should be transformed. From this stems a practical programme that identifies what needs to be done to unite image and reality. Ideologies, therefore, provide us with a way of understanding and influencing the world in which we live (Eccleshall, 1984a, pp. 7–8). It would be wrong, however, to reduce any ideology to a simple wish list constructed by people discontent with the status quo. Some ideologies seek to preserve rather than to engage in radical change.

We can gain considerable insight into ideologies by uncovering their divergent views on the purpose of life, rather than by comparing policy recommendations on such issues as the state or the economy. Although it is important to understand practical proposals, those subscribing to different ideologies may well share some policy recommendations but for different reasons. Some conservatives, for example, are critical of the welfare state for sapping the will and initiative of the individual and for draining the nation of resources (see Chapters 3 and 5). Some Marxists have also been critical of the welfare state. They have argued that it props up and prolongs the life of the capitalist system by providing a safety net to be used during times of economic hardship, thus taking the wind out of revolutionary sails (see Chapter 7). Given these vastly different agendas, it makes sense to view policy recommendations in the light of broader ideological structures.

The development of ideologies

Ideologies are developed in a variety of ways. At a basic level, people construct their own ideological makeups by developing their own philosophies of life. This is a process that might draw upon the ideas of others and one that is often driven by the need to place our own experiences into some broader context. We often draw conclusions about our nature and about the nature of other people in society. We also have economic views, relating perhaps to the work we do and to the incomes we have, even if these views do not run to detailed knowledge of macro-economic policy. Attitudes towards social policy likewise develop through our own experiences of the education and health systems, through the way we view our own housing needs and perhaps as a result of our own or our family’s experience of the benefits system. The importance of this basic level of understanding should not be underestimated. Those who devour weighty theoretical texts may well dismiss such views as undeveloped or even as uninformed, but this fails to recognise the importance of such views in influencing the way we vote, moulding the formation of policy (particularly in a more pragmatic political climate) and in affecting the kinds of literature we choose to read. Ideological perspectives often have fairly simple foundations. They tend to rest upon a particular view of life, and one that can be heard in a variety of places and expressed by a broad range of people. It is not necessary to be an expert in politics to understand and appreciate the importance of ideas in society and to recognise the relevance of ideology.

Ideologies are also developed by theorists who, at various stages in their writings, attempt to grapple with the defining characteristics of society and work towards building programmes of reform. It is worth remembering that many of the great theorists of the modern age have written, more often than not, in response to immediate and specific events. The conservative philosophy of Edmund Burke, for example, developed in response to news about the French Revolution of 1789 and because he was worried about the potential appeal of revolutionary ideas in Britain. At the other end of the conventional political spectrum, Marx developed many of his ideas by taking note of the political programmes and activities of the nineteenth-century labour movement and through his intensive study of the capitalist economy. Marx rarely outlined his vision of the future, yet these are the sections that often feature in discussions on socialist and Marxist ideologies. Key theorists in the development of political ideologies do not necessarily regard themselves in this way. Theorists often make a range of contributions, only some of which survive their lifetimes and influence other theorists. It is clear, moreover, that theorists fall in and out of favour. Socialist theorists like William Morris and Edward Carpenter, who concentrated upon the ethical and aesthetic features of socialism, wrote during the 1880s and were ‘rediscovered’ in the second decade of the twentieth century and during the 1960s. The way we view their contributions to socialism will in turn change over time. This shows, among other things, that ideologies are not stable or unchanging streams of thought. The way that ideologies are interpreted will depend upon the questions being asked and, to some extent, on the current intellectual climate. The idea of socialism, for example, is constantly redefined by theorists, practitioners and commentators in the hope of either promoting or defeating its dominant features.

Social and political movements are also important in the development of ideologies. Practitioners, by working out and responding to policy initiatives, play a key role in adapting theoretical perspectives to practical problems, in showing the limitations of any particular theory and in creating new possibilities for theoretical developments. Developments in conservative and new right ideas, for example, owe a great deal to conservative parties throughout the world. Indeed, it could be argued that conservatism has no great need for detailed theoretical backing given that its primary aim is to conserve rather than to change. Conservatives have traditionally shunned abstract political theory, claiming that it distracts practitioners from the serious business of managing society (see Chapter 3). Similar reservations about the value of theory have also been expressed by advocates of the third way (see Chapter 6). In both cases, these reservations influence the nature of their respective ideologies rather than do away with the need for ideology itself.

In discussing ideologies, it is necessary to recognise that they are not necessarily tied to party politics. The liberal ideology, for example, is not necessarily applied and developed solely by liberal parties. Liberalism can appeal to members of the Liberal Party in Britain and to the Democratic Party in America as well as to members of other right or left wing parties. The same applies to the other ideologies. When we look at ideology, we are concentrating upon systems of thought that encompass entire philosophies of life rather than mere party programmes. Political parties, indeed, can pull from a variety of ideologies when developing their policies and when constructing their rhetoric to appeal to the electorate. It is not necessary for us to accept or reject any particular ideology in its entirety. Something of value can be found in most ideologies and, by combining and refining ideas drawn a range of sources, we are able to develop our own perspectives on politics and on life. These perspectives might owe more to one ideology than to another, but without access to diverse ideological debate our own political understanding is likely to remain stunted. We do not have to agree with ideologies other than our own, but we should at least be aware of them.

Welfare

The concept of welfare is far from straightforward. It is often used as a shorthand term to describe the benefits system but this is an extremely limited view of what welfare entails. O’Brien and Penna point out that welfare can mean ‘well-being’ and thus can refer to such things as the economic prosperity, health and personal security of the population. It can also refer to the institutions of the welfare state that many believe are necessary to promote individual and collective welfare. Finally, it can be viewed as a discourse (of social welfare) through which we understand the world (O’Brien and Penna, 1998, pp. 7–8). Ideological perspectives on welfare go far beyond discussing the arguments for and against the benefits system. Although some politicians might use fairly restrictive definitions of welfare, many social and political theorists are aware that our welfare consists in a number of interrelated things.

Welfare (or well-being) rests upon a number of foundations. Tony Fitzpatrick ties it to such things as long term happiness, degree of security, whether our needs and preferences are being satisfied or stifled, whether we get what we deserve and how we compare with others. Rather than see welfare as something that can be measured objectively, it is important that we take into account its subjective features because it relies upon the way we view our own well-being (Fitzpatrick, 2001, pp. 5–11). Our welfare thus exists not only in the possession of good health, good education, secure and decent housing and sufficient money and resources to live a decent life, but also in our appreciation of these things. The value of a university education, for example, can be expressed in objective and subjective terms. Its objective value can be measured by comparing the incomes of graduates and non-graduates, while its subjective value is found in the impact it has upon our quality of life and in the value we place upon education. The more we value our existing levels of education, health or housing, the greater our sense of well-being.

Structure of the chapters

This volume recognises that ideologies develop through theoretical speculation and through political practice. Rather than concentrate solely upon theoretical developments, an attempt has been made to produce a blended approach that uses theory and practice to illuminate the distinctive features of each ideology. While each chapter has a theoretical backbone, this is often supplemented with a variety of policy examples. It is important to recognise that ideological perspectives are developed internationally. Although each nation might formulate and apply ideas to suit its own particular needs, these nations contribute towards a rich and sprawling ideological tapestry of international dimension and significance. While it is beyond the remit of this book to cover the international system as a whole, an attempt has been made to infuse a comparative element that allows us to look beyond any one particular country. In drawing comparisons, special attention has been given to perspectives developed by theorists and practitioners in Britain and in the United States. Some reference is also made to certain policies developed and implemented in other European states, Asia and New Zealand. It is hoped that this broad approach will give the reader access to a multitude of alternatives that cast light not only on the nations concerned but also on the international importance of ideologies.

An attempt has been made in this volume to view each ideology on a number of levels and to identify a series of interrelated layers. It is argued that in order to understand the policy recommendations of the various theorists and ideologies, it is necessary to take into account how these recommendations rest upon economic, social and political foundations. Each chapter is organised so that the foundations are covered first and are followed by a discussion of areas of policy. In the hope of assisting readers to navigate their way through the issues and to allow for comparisons to be made, a standard format has been used for all of the chapters. Following a brief introduction, each chapter is divided into the following sections:

•Economy

•Social values

•State and welfare

•Welfare and social policies.

It should be appreciated that these sections are by no means self-contained. The sections on state and welfare will also refer to social policies and these individual examples of social provision also overlap to some degree. When discussing health, for example, it is quite possible that the benefits system and housing will have some bearing on the topic. This study acknowledges and reinforces the view that welfare issues are interconnected and that, if we want to deal with problems in one area, we need to take into account how these problems are influenced by and impact upon other areas of social life. Let us now take a closer look at the areas outlined above.

Economy

All of the ideologies covered in this volume include an economic dimension, so much so that the economy is often seen as a key foundation for social policy initiatives. The capitalist economy rests upon private ownership and control of the means of production. The capitalist ethos allows for individuals to prosper by either selling their labour or by purchasing the labour of others and extracting a profit. This method of buying and selling of labour power is commonplace in modern Western economies and carries with it significant ideological baggage about the way that individuals relate to each other through a cash-nexus. In a capitalist system, we operate within a variety of markets. We equip ourselves to compete in the labour market, the housing market and even in what we choose to buy and how we choose to display it.

The economy provides a framework for the development of social policies. Apart from anything else, it generates wealth and thus creates the material resources that can be distributed or withheld from diverse sections of society. The capitalist system and its sophisticated methods of production, distribution and exchange needs workers who are healthy, educated and housed. Fluctuations within the business cycle will often create problems of unemployment and therefore make it necessary for us either individually or collectively to find ways to protect ourselves from the ravages of unemployment and from the perils of poverty in old age. Capitalism, moreover, relies upon the existence of inequalities and the desire to succeed economically. Such inequalities, especially when they are extreme and unregulated, can pose a serious threat to social order. Given these factors, it makes sense to ask what can be done to regulate or transform the economy so as to maximise the common good. Contemporary ideologies and political movements vary in the degree to which they are willing to use the state to intervene in the economy and to redistribute the wealth. These debates on the role of the state in the economy do indeed have a central place in the modern ideological landscape.

Social values

In addition to an economic dimension, ideologies also contain social values. These social values include such things as freedom, equality, justice, responsibility and so on and are important for a variety of reasons. In particular, they express views about the relationship between individuals and establish a conceptual framework within which politicians and policymakers operate. Economic and social policies in Western democracies often rest upon and influence the type of freedom that citizens expect in society, or the extent of equality or social justice deemed appropriate in the modern age. As long as these policies are not imposed regardless of popular opinion, policymakers will make assumptions about the way that the citizens of their particular society view freedom and equality and, if they are ambitious, how these values can be altered or strengthened. Social values can be seen scattered through policy documents and have an extremely important place in ideological debates. Social and political theorists, indeed, use social values as part of their theoretical currency. It could be argued that social policies in particular rarely have value in themselves and that they are evaluated more often than not according to their contribution to levels of freedom or equality in society.

As we will see, there are many different interpretations of freedom. Freedom is not a single definable entity but something that people from different ideological backgrounds seem to value. Attempts have been made over time to distinguish between different types of freedom and to create categ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Liberalism
• 3. Conservatism
• 4. Social Democracy
• 5. Neo-liberalism
• 6. Third Way
• 7. Radical Critics: Marxism
• 8. Radical Critics: Feminism
• 9. Radical Critics: Greens
• 10. Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Index