Hidden History of New Orleans

Josh Foreman, Ryan Starrett

• Publisher: The History Press
• Year: 2020
• Topic: History
• eBook ISBN:
  9781439668894
• Subtopic: North American History
• Index: History

The history of New Orleans is one of contrasts--heroes and villains, catastrophe and celebration, sinners and saints. In this New Orleans, a serial-killing axeman threatens to murder anyone not playing jazz. A fearless band of missionary nuns pushes to civilize the frontier. During World War II, Nazi U-boats lurk off the coast, while Denton Crocker's battle with local mosquitoes contributes to victory in the Pacific. From the streetcar strikers who lined the thoroughfares with IEDs to the unsung heroine of the Battle of New Orleans, Ryan Starrett and Josh Foreman offer a dose of history that would be hard to believe if it hadn't happened here.

1

MEMORIES OF PENICAUT

A Frenchman Finds Adventure in Louisiana

C’est un jeune garcon—It’s a young boy
S’en allant à la voile—Sailing
La chantant tout au long—Singing all the way

Pour y faire un long voyage—To make a long voyage
Aller aux pays hauts—Go to the high countries
Parmi tous les sauvages—Among the wild ones

Ah! Que l’hiver est long—Ah, winter is long
Que ce temps est ennuyant!—the time is boring
Nuit et jour mon coeur soupire—Night and day, my heart sighs

Quand le printemps est arrivé—When spring arrived
Les vents d’avril soufflent dans nos voiles—April winds blow in our sails
Pour revenir dans mons pays—To return to my country

Adieu, tous les sauvages—Farewell, all wild ones
Adieu, les pays hauts—Farewell, high countries
Adieu, les grand’s misères—Farewell, big miseries¹

—From “La Plainte du Coureur-des-bois”
(“The Complaint of the Runner of the Woods”),
a seventeenth-century French Canadian song about life on the frontier

Andre Penicaut climbed from his makeshift bed, the sun still an hour from rising. The young man looked over at his chaloupe (the French version of a Viking longboat), which was banked on the shore of the little island he and his companions had named Isle-aux-Pois. We need to get moving, he thought. Before the gnats wake up. The little bloodsuckers had tormented him and his companions since they’d arrived in Louisiana a few weeks before.

He climbed into the boat with the rest of the crew—eight or so other Frenchmen who’d volunteered for this journey of exploration and a few Biloxi Indians—and the men pushed off into the creek that had carried them to the small island. They rowed through wild country dotted with herons. Their Biloxi guides told them where to go and how to find the river prize they’d been seeking: the Missicipy. They traveled for a few miles, and their chaloupe glided into open water. Whenever the wind permitted, they took a break from rowing and let the small sails on the chaloupe propel them.

Traveling west, they were funneled into a narrow channel, the banks on either side made from piles of white shells. Then, again, they hit open water. But this time they were not traveling along the Gulf Coast—they had entered a vast lake, which they estimated was twenty-four miles wide. There was some discussion about what they should name the lake. Penicaut’s friend Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville decided it should be called Pontchartrain, after a powerful man back home.

The crew traveled along the shore of Lake Pontchartrain until their Biloxi guides directed them to bank their chaloupe and make camp—the Mississippi was near. They slept in the swamp that night. The next morning, the group split up. Some men stayed behind with the chaloupe while others, including Penicaut, went ahead on foot. As he waded through swamp, Penicaut marveled at the towering trees that rose from the still water of the bayou. The cypress groves gave way to stretches of tall marsh grass. The Frenchmen’s guides, with fox- and otter-skin quivers bouncing on their backs as they walked, told them that the grass produced a fine grain for soup.

Penicaut trudged through the grass, trusting that his guides were right about the Mississippi. He wasn’t afraid to trust, but he kept his gun loaded and ready. Always. Then he saw it—for what seemed like a mile, the river stretched out. On either side of the river, the shore was covered with hardwood trees: oak, ash, elm and others unfamiliar to the Frenchmen. They had done it. They had found a route to the Mississippi River from their base at Biloxi. Penicaut filled a cup with river water and took a drink—how sweet it tasted.²

Kanonneersloepen in de Dordtsche Kil, by Reinier Vinkeles, 1793. From Rijksmuseum.

Penicaut had not only discovered an access point to the Mississippi River that day, he had also discovered New Orleans, or the land that would become New Orleans some two decades later. The descriptions he published of the place are some of the earliest ever recorded and give a first-person look at the untamed land that New Orleans was built on.

Penicaut and his companions made camp underneath one of the Mississippi’s great trees. As they sat there, a flock of turkeys roosted in the boughs above them. They were thirty pounds or more each—bigger than any fowl Penicaut had seen back in France. Penicaut and his friends readied their guns and blazed away. Turkeys began to fall, but the rest of the flock stayed in the trees above them. The birds had never heard gunfire before, so they weren’t scared off by the sound.

The feast that followed was a fitting reward for the risk and the rowing. Having located the Mississippi, Penicaut and his companions headed back to Lake Pontchartrain, then on to Biloxi with their boats loaded with game. He was eager to report back to his party that his expedition into the wilderness had borne fruit.³

It wouldn’t be the last time. Penicaut would continue to journey from Biloxi, and then from other points in French Louisiana, to the frontier, taking careful (if only mental) notes of what he saw and experienced. He stayed in Louisiana long enough to actually witness the founding of New Orleans. Later in life, after he had returned to France, Penicaut published his memoir of his time in Louisiana. The memoir tells not only of his first sighting of Lake Pontchartrain and the Mississippi but also of the strange people he met along the way, of wild animals, feasts and dances, murders and betrayals, women, trysts, travel and adventure.

The memoir tells the story of a young man who had grown “passionately fond of rambling” and wanted nothing more than to find adventure; a frontiersman who could live “off the end of his gun” and was so apt at learning languages that he became a translator between the French and Indians; a middle-aged man who had acquired land and a family and couldn’t risk quite as much as he once could; a broken-down man desperate to once again cross the Atlantic and return to the wild land of his youth. Penicaut was one of the earliest chroniclers of Louisiana and New Orleans, and to understand the strange and swampy land from which the Crescent City sprang, it’s necessary to first turn to him.

IT MAKES SENSE THAT when Andre Penicaut, as a boy of fifteen, had a “great urge” to go on a journey, he looked west across the Atlantic Ocean. Penicaut was born in the coastal city of La Rochelle, a French hub of trade in the late 1600s. La Rochelle, located about midway down the Atlantic coast of France, was already doing the bulk of the trading with French Canada when King Louis XIV and his ministers decided to make the city a kind of state-sponsored military and economic powerhouse in 1666. France founded the walled city of Rochefort about twenty miles south of La Rochelle that year. The goal was to make Rochefort a premier French naval base—one that could draw on the population, supplies and financial services of nearby La Rochelle. La Rochelle, in return, was granted a monopoly on trade with Canada. So, Penicaut grew up in La Rochelle at a time when the city was becoming the gateway to France’s new-world holdings for both trade and military excursions.⁴

Iberville’s 1698 voyage to Louisiana, which first took Penicaut to the New World,⁵ had a decidedly martial feel. Upon arriving at Biloxi, the first thing the Frenchmen did was build a fort, though it would soon be replaced with a larger and more heavily fortified one, on the Mobile River. The English and Spanish were also eager to establish footholds in the New World, and run-ins with the French were sometimes violent. Iberville’s expedition to the Gulf in 1699 had actually passed by a half-finished, months-old Spanish fort at Pensacola. The Spaniards gave the Frenchmen a frosty reception, asking that they stay on their boats in Pensacola Bay (later, full-scale hostilities would erupt between the French and Spanish here).⁶ The various Indian tribes that Penicaut encountered would prove to be hostile from time to time as well. Penicaut would write in his memoir that powder and shot were “absolutely necessary” when traveling in Louisiana.⁷

Man in a Fur Hat Holding a Musket, Looking Upwards, by James Bretherton. From Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Penicaut had left France in search of adventure, and he found it immediately upon arrival in the New World. His adventure often took the form of boat trips up and down the Mississippi. On his trips, he would go from Indian village to Indian village, talking to, dancing with and occasionally escaping from Indians. Much of the early part of Penicaut’s memoir describes the Indians who occupied southern Louisiana at the time of French contact.

He wrote of the Pascagoula, who would strip to cope with the August heat. The Pascagoula men would go completely naked and the women would wear a two-foot-long hank of moss between their legs, which the French jokingly called a “Spanish beard” (the Spanish called it a “French wig” in return).⁸ Penicaut wrote of the Houma and Bayagoula, who were fiercely protective of their respective hunting territories and erected a red-painted stick at the border of the two nations, sixty-odd miles from New Orleans. This gave the name to the city that would become Baton Rouge.⁹ He wrote of the quarrelsome Alibamons, who acted as a buffer between the French holdings of the Gulf Coast and the English colonies of Carolina.¹⁰

During his time in Louisiana, Penicaut learned to speak Indian languages. He came to the New World as a carpenter, but he soon grew into a frontiersman and translator. He spent days, weeks and months at a time in Indian villages. In 1700, on his first ascent of the Mississippi, Penicaut and his crew pulled into sight of Cahokia, the former center of one of the greatest Indian civilizations in North America: the Mississippians. Cahokia was just off the Mississippi River in present-day southern Illinois. The Mississippians had abandoned the city by the time Europeans reached the New World, but Indian tribes such as the Illinois still lived in the area. Penicaut and his companions made a grand entrance the first time they reached the site.

“We headed in under sail,” Penicaut wrote, “Firing ten or twelve canister shots, at which the savages were greatly surprised.”

Once Penicaut made land, he too was surprised. He found thirty French Canadian fur traders and three French missionaries living among the Indians (run-ins with other Europeans on the frontier were neither common nor rare). Penicaut and his crew, for whom the journey up the Mississippi had not been easy (they had run so low on food at one point that they were subsisting on tree shoots and sap), stayed with the Illinois for two and a half weeks. When it was time to go, four of the Frenchmen who’d accompanied Penicaut headed north to Canada, and five of the French Canadians headed south with Penicaut.¹¹

Mural depicting the meeting of the French and the American Indians. From Library of Congress.

Penicaut was fond of writing about food and included many descriptions of the game-centric cuisine that the French encountered in Louisiana. The Frenchmen were often “living off the ends of their guns” as they explored. They primarily ate plump turkeys, whitetail deer, buffalo, bear, fish, wading birds and the Indian dish called sagamite (a soup made from grain, vegetables and meat). At Bay St. Louis, between Biloxi and Lake Pontchartrain, the men had hunted the wild and woolly bison, which at the time of European contact roamed from Louisiana to Florida in great numbers.¹² After ascending the Mississippi in 1700, Penicaut and his companions wintered in present-day Minnesota, huddling in huts for months, subsisting on the four hundred bison they had killed for provisions. Penicaut wrote that at first eating such great amounts of bison made him and his companions sick, but after a few weeks of the diet, they were each eating more than ten pounds of meat and drinking four bowls of bison broth a day.¹³

In the village of the Colapissas—one of Penicaut’s favorite tribes, whose language he learned to speak—on Lake Pontchartrain, Penicaut and his friend Picard, a fiddler, spent an entire night in 1706 playing music and dancing and woke up late the next morning to a feast of fish “fricasseed” in bear fat, strawberries and sagamite. It...

Table of contents

• Front Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Foreword, by Katy Simpson Smith
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• 1. Memories of Penicaut: A Frenchman Finds Adventure in Louisiana
• 2. Sinners and Saints: The Parallel Lives of Michel Degout and the Ursuline Nuns
• 3. Amor Omnia Vincit: Even an Invincible Redcoat Army
• 4. The Duelists: Clara and the Beast
• 5. Pierced with Slander’s Venomed Spear: The Sad Tale of Cap Murphy and Recorder Ford
• 6. Liberia or Bust: Robert Charles Versus New Orleans
• 7. From Deepest Tartarus: The Axeman and the Birth of Jazz
• 8. Dynamite Bandits: Terrorist Tactics in the Carmen’s Strike of 1929
• 9. Mosquitoes and Torpedoes: New Orleans Goes to War
• 10. Lavender Line: Tennessee Williams and Gay New Orleans
• 11. Gumbo: Vignettes from New Orleans’s Food History
• Notes
• Bibliography