Enhancement Fit for Humanity

Perspectives on Emerging Technologies

Michael Baggot, Alberto García Gómez, Alberto Carrara, Joseph Tham, Michael Baggot, Alberto García Gómez, Alberto Carrara, Joseph Tham, Michael Baggot

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2021
• Print ISBN:
  9781032115856
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000486995
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Religion

This book explores what constitutes an enhancement fit for humanity in the age of nanotechnologies, biotechnologies, information technologies, and technologies related to the cognitive sciences. It considers the influence of emergent technology upon our understanding of human nature and the impact on future generations. Drawing on the Catholic tradition, in particular, the book gathers international contributions from scientific, philosophical, legal, and religious perspectives. Together they offer a positive step in an ongoing dialogue regarding the promises and perils of emergent technology for man's integral human development.

Part I

Scientific perspectives on emerging technologies

1 Emerging and converging technologies

The state of the art in therapeutics

Francisco José Ballesta

DOI: 10.4324/9781003220589-1

Over the past few years, new developments in the biomedical field have been considerably reinforced by scientific and technical discoveries in other fields, including nanotechnology, cognitive science, and information technology.¹ We know how findings in an area of scientific knowledge lead to technological development, which, when applied to scientific research itself, speeds up the pace of knowledge renewal. We are now witnessing a new symbiosis between different technologies that may seem very distant but can strengthen each other. Nanotechnologies (N), biotechnologies (B), information technologies (I), and technologies related to neuroscience and cognitive sciences (C) interact in the so-called NBIC convergence. One of the characteristics of this convergence is that the narrow boundaries between the physical sciences, more properly spoken of as technology, and the biological sciences, are gradually being erased. Biology is becoming technology, and technology biology. On the one hand, genes, cells, organs, etc., are increasingly manipulated in an engineering style. On the other hand, attempts are being made to equip technological products with properties traditionally associated with living beings, such as growing, regenerating, reproducing, and even behaving intelligently.² For example, we can take a study of synthetic materials that behave like leather. It is a biodegradable, “intelligent” material that changes its electrical properties according to its degree of stretching, like skin; it can also “close a wound” when one part is placed next to another. The possibilities of use range from bandages that can help heal, in the case of wounds, to touch-sensitive electronic devices in robotics.³

In NBIC convergence, the biology that is becoming technology and the technology that is becoming biology lead to critical cultural changes. On the one hand, machines are built with humanoid characteristics claiming to have specific physical characteristics and forms and be able to detect human emotions and behaviors. They also claim to act socially and emotionally in their interaction with humans and their influence on human behaviors. On the other hand, human beings are increasingly perceived as machines. This perception reinforces the idea that it will be possible, in an unlimited way, to restore and improve the human body in the same way as with machines. Finally, we have also seen a change in the forms of interaction between human beings, resulting from the increasing invasion of devices into our lives.⁴

Engineering actions on the human body have a history as long as that of prostheses of all kinds. Starting from those used by dentists in ancient Egypt up to the sophisticated exoskeletons that we are beginning to use today, passing through limb replacements that are routinely performed in many operating rooms. The NBIC convergence is enhancing these engineering actions in a surprising way. There is also the possibility of replacing a deformed ear with a normal one, combining scanners and 3D printing techniques, molds, stem cells, and surgery.⁵ Consideration is being given to the possibility of building complete human organs within the body of animals in order to replace damaged organs. An experimental line is under development that exploits advances in genetics, stem cell control, and reproduction manipulation.⁶

The Rathenau report has presented the state of the art, distinguishing between the therapeutic uses of the various techniques and their possible uses in the improvement or enhancement of different capabilities. We will examine what the report describes about neuro- and nanotechnologies.

The technologies applied to the brain are divided into invasive and non-invasive. Non-invasive technologies include traditional electroencephalogram (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), direct transcranial electrical stimulation (tDCS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and non-invasive brain-computer interface (BCI) devices. Invasive technologies include deep brain stimulation (DBS), invasive BCIs, and therapies using neuronal stem cells. In addition to its diagnostic value, EEG and fMRI are used in therapy as feedback to educate and increase attention. In healthy people, they can be used to improve accuracy in golf and video games. The technology can also promote relaxation in patients. TMS is used in clinical research to treat depression resistant to common treatments and other situations such as brain hemorrhages. In healthy people, it is thought to be useful for improving cognitive skills. BCIs are used to improve the communication of patients with severe neurological disorders that prevent them from expressing themselves normally. The technology can also be used to monitor mental states such as wakefulness in jobs specifically requiring it. DBS has been used with good results in treating tremors related to various diseases, in overcoming treatment-resistant depression, obsessive-compulsive syndrome, and other psychiatric conditions. The approaches could additionally be used to improve mood or memory in those already considered healthy. Invasive BCISs have their main representative in cochlear implantation, which has been in use since 1957. Research on neurological prostheses progresses in the line of artificial limb implants controlled by the brain. Neuronal stem cell therapies are already in clinical testing, and their use is hypothesized to reconstitute neuronal loss related to many neurological diseases.⁷

The interest in the medical applications of nanotechnology has led to the emergence of nanomedicine. Nanotechnology makes possible the study of the human body by focusing on significant biomarkers at a molecular level. Changes in these biomarkers are the basis of many pathological processes that can be diagnosed accurately and promptly. Nanotechnology makes a decisive contribution through devices (biometric sensors, bionic implants) used to monitor physiological functions such as glycemia and blood pressure continuously. Nanomedicine offers us less invasive treatment options using nanoparticles. It also provides the possibility of correcting genetic defects at the tissue level. Moreover, we can see the broad horizon of reconstructive/regenerative nanomedicine, which aims to restore damaged tissue or rejuvenate normal tissue using intelligent materials and stem cells.⁸ A recent example of the correction of genetic defects at the tissue level is the clinical tests carried out to heal certain forms of hemophilia.⁹ These and similar technological developments offer the promise of improving the lives of both the healthy and the ill.

Notes

1. Rinie van Est, Dirk Stemerding, Virgil Rerimassie, Mirjam Schuijff, Jelte Timmer, Frans Brom, From Bio to NBIC Convergence – From Medical Practice to Daily Life: Report Written for the Council of Europe, Committee on Bioethics (The Hague: Rathenau Instituut, 2014), 6.
2. Rinie van Est, Dirk Stemerding, Virgil Rerimassie, Mirjam Schuijff, Jelte Timmer, Frans Brom, From Bio to NBIC Convergence – From Medical Practice to Daily Life, 14–15.
3. See Yi-Zhou Zhang et al., “MXenes Stretch Hydrogel Sensor Performance to New Limits,” Science Advances 4, no. 6 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat0098.
4. Rinie van Est, Dirk Stemerding, Virgil Rerimassie, Mirjam Schuijff, Jelte Timmer, Frans Brom, From Bio to NBIC Convergence – From Medical Practice to Daily Life, 19.
5. Guangdong Zhou et al., “In Vitro Regeneration of Patient-Specific Ear-Shaped Cartilage and Its First Clinical Application for Auricular Reconstruction,” EBioMedicine 28 (2018), accessed May 6, 2021, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352396418300161.
6. Tomoyuki Yamaguchi et al., “Interspecies Organogenesis Generates Autologous Functional Islets,” Nature 542, no. 7640 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21070.
7. Rinie van Est, Dirk Stemerding, Virgil Rerimassie, Mirjam Schuijff, Jelte Timmer, Frans Brom, From Bio to NBIC Convergence – From Medical Practice to Daily Life, 18–20.
8. Rinie van Est, Dirk Stemerding, Virgil Rerimassie, Mirjam Schuijff, Jelte Timmer, Frans Brom, From Bio to NBIC Convergence – From Medical Practice to Daily Life, 25–29.
9. Savita Rangarajan et al., “AAV5-Factor VIII Gene Transfer in Severe Hemophilia A,” The New England Journal of Medicine 377, no. 26 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1708483.

Bibliography

1. Rangarajan, Savita, Liron Walsh, Will Lester, David Perry, Bella Madan, Michael Laffan, Yu Hua et al. “AAV5-Factor VIII Gene Transfer in Severe Hemophilia A.” The New England Journal of Medicine 377, no. 26 (2017): 2519–2530. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1708483.
2. van Est, Rinie, Dirk Stemerding, Virgil Rerimassie, Mirjam Schuijff, Jelte Timmer, and Frans Brom . From Bio to NBIC Convergence – From Medical Practice to Daily Life: Report Written for the Council of Europe, Committee on Bioethics (The Hague: Rathenau Instituut, 2014).
3. Yamaguchi, Tomoyuki, Hideyuki Sato, Megumi Kato-Itoh, Teppei Goto, Hiromasa Hara, Makoto Sanbo, Naoaki Mizuno et al. “Interspecies Organogenesis Generates Autologous Functional Islets.” Nature 542, no. 7640 (2017): 191–196. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21070.
4. Zhang, Yi-Zhou, Kang Hyuck Lee, Dalaver H. Anjum, Rachid Sougrat, Qiu Jiang, Hyunho Kim, and Husam N. Alshareef . “MXenes Stretch Hydrogel Sensor Performance to New Limits.” Science Advances 4, no. 6 (2018): eaat0098. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat0098.
5. Zhou, Guangdong, Haiyue Jiang, Zongqi Yin, Yu Liu, Qingguo Zhang, Chen Zhang, Bo Pan et al. “In Vitro Regeneration of Patient-Specific Ear-Shaped Cartilage and Its First Clinical Application for Auricular Reconstruction.” EBioEBiomedicine 28 (2018): 287–302. Accessed May 6, 2021. www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352396418300161.

2 Cognitive and memory neuroenhancement

Mirko Daniel Garasic

DOI: 10.4324/9781003220589-2

Introduction¹

In our postmodern society we are increasingly facing new forms of enhancement. It is now well documented that the use of cognitive-enhancing drugs (CED) is a well-established and growing phenomenon² spreading across university campuses³ (with so-called “academic doping”)⁴ as well as other competitive contexts.⁵ First, the goal is to show the tension between the local effect (the enhancement of the individual performance) and the global effects (the unwanted social results deriving from the spreading of the use of CED). Those effects are related to two distinct concepts, which are at odds: (1) autonomy, and consequently privacy, of individuals in their choice of enhancing themselves, and (2) fairness, which is a socially appreciated value. In the following sections, we shall consider the values separately, starting with the former and later considering its implications on the latter. Second, this work will consider some aspects concerning memory editing and memory enhancement.

Local effect as privacy

In arguing for the explicit cl...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title
• Series
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Contributors
• Preface: The challenge of imperfection
• Introduction: An interdisciplinary reflection on the impact of emerging technologies on humanity
• PART I Scientific perspectives on emerging technologies
• PART II Philosophical perspectives on emerging technologies
• PART III Social and legal perspectives on emerging technologies
• PART IV Religious perspectives on emerging technologies and transhumanism
• Index