The British Experience In Iraq From 1914-1926: What Wisdom Can The United States Draw From Its Experience?

Major Matthew W. Williams

• Publisher: Tannenberg Publishing
• Year: 2014
• eBook ISBN: 9781782896746
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Military & Maritime History
• Index: History

This thesis examines the British experience in Iraq from 1914-1926. Britain invaded Iraq to secure its oil interests and to protect its lines of communication to India. The British initially defeated Ottoman forces and captured the Basra vilayet (province) in December 1914. Although Basra's capture accomplished the objectives that Britain had sought to achieve at the outset of the campaign, it was followed by an ill-advised advance to Baghdad that culminated in defeat by the Ottomans at Kut-al-Amara in 1916. The British regrouped, however, and resumed the offensive, capturing Baghdad in 1917 and Mosul in 1918. After the war, Britain managed Iraq as a League of Nations Mandate from 1920-1932. The British installed Iraq's first ruler, King Feisal I in 1921 and helped demarcate its northern border with Turkey in 1926.
This thesis explores the British military campaign in Iraq during World War I and its subsequent civil administration. The thesis will examine the actions Britain took during this time period and determine, what wisdom, if any, that the United States (US) can draw from these experiences in relation to its current efforts in Iraq. This study concludes that, if the US is going to accomplish its objectives in Iraq, it should base its future relationship with Iraq primarily by incentives and not coercion. Furthermore, any attempt by the US to simultaneously develop Iraq into an independent nation-state and maintain dominant, long-term influence will likely result in failure. Overall, if the US wants to accomplish its goals in Iraq, it should treat Iraq like an equal and strive to be the best friend it has never had.

CHAPTER 1 — INTRODUCTION

Iraq is an important country. Not only is it located at the crossroads of the strategically important Middle East, but it also has considerable oil reserves and multiple cities considered holy by Muslims. In March 2003, the United States (US) and Britain swept through Iraq and removed Saddam Hussein from power in less than three weeks. The US justified the invasion by claiming that Saddam Hussein’s support of international terrorism, his alleged stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, and his regime all posed imminent threats to US vital and regional interests. Unfortunately, his regime’s fall only ushered in a new type of threat to US interests. Hussein’s removal prompted insurgents to direct daily small-scale attacks at occupying forces. Following the end of Hussein’s rule in April 2003, the US and its coalition allies were faced with occupying a large Islamic country with a restive populace. Frequent attacks against US forces have resulted in more than 670 killed in action from 1 May 2003 to 29 May 2004. To best understand the challenges that the US faces today in Iraq, it is important to first understand Iraq’s proud history.

Iraq has ancient origins. The country originated from the territory once referred to as Mesopotamia, or the “land between the rivers.” Mesopotamia formed not only the center of the Middle East, but the civilized world as well. The ancient Sumerians, the people of the Tigris and Euphrates river basin, developed complex irrigation systems and probably created the first cereal agriculture, as well as cuneiform, possibly the earliest writing system. Mesopotamia’s substantial water resources and fertile river valleys allowed for the production of surplus food that served as the basis for the civilizing trend begun by the Sumerians. Their successors, the Akkadians, devised the most complete legal system of the period, the Code of Hammurabi.

Neither the US nor Britain was the first foreign occupiers of the territory that is now called Iraq. Due to its strategic location in the heart of the ancient Middle East, numerous foreign conquerors sought Mesopotamia (henceforth referred to as Iraq). The Islamic Arabs, Greeks, Mongols, Persians, and Ottomans all occupied Iraq. Despite its varied origins, probably the most important influence on present day Iraq was the conquest by the Islamic Arabs. In 637, an Arab army defeated the then ruling Persians near the present-day city of Qadisiyyah--a victory of great symbolic importance to Iraqis today. This battle led to the fall of the capital of the Persian Sassanids at Ctesiphon and the expansion of an Arab Empire led by Umar ibn Al-Khattab, the second caliph. Islamic in character, Umar primarily conquered new lands both to secure the unity of the ummah (Muslim community) and to enrich his treasury. However, he did not force non-Muslim subjects to convert to Islam (Armstrong 2002, 30). Umar subsequently built two garrison towns or amsar in Iraq at Al-Kufah and Basra, where Islamic soldiers were purposely segregated from their conquered populations.

Uthman ibn Affan succeeded Umar and became the third caliph in 644. He was a member of the powerful Umayyad family whose descendents ultimately ruled this Islamic Empire until 750. Mutinous Arab soldiers murdered Uthman in 656 because of his alleged nepotism and failure to provide the benefits that his soldiers thought they deserved. These mutineers claimed Ali ibn Abi Talib, son-in-law to the Prophet, as their new caliph due to his family ties to Muhammed and his prior opposition to Uthman and Umar.

Ali subsequently led a civil war against Umayyad loyalists and made Al-Kufah his capital. He marched on Basra from Al-Kufah where he defeated opposition forces at the Battle of the Camel in 656. Muawiya, a powerful member of the Umayyad in Damascus, Syria was Ali’s primary nemesis. Ali proceeded to Damascus in 657 to battle Muawya’s forces. A fierce clash ensued but ultimately ended in a truce, as both sides agreed to arbitrate the secession according to the Quran. Arbitration took place six months later but proved inconclusive (Glubb 1960, 36).

In 658, Muawiya annexed Egypt and proclaimed himself caliph in Jerusalem. The Islamic Empire was now divided in two. Muawiya ruled Syria, Egypt, and Palestine; while Ali controlled Iraq and Persia. Frustrated at this division and convinced that only the assassination of both leaders would reunite all Muslims, a group of Kharijites or outsiders (they believed that the caliph should be the most committed Muslim, not the most politically powerful) tried to kill Muawiya and Ali in 661. Muawiya survived the assassination attempt but Ali was struck down outside his mosque in Al-Kufah (Glubb 1960, 36).

Undeterred, some of Ali’s supporters proclaimed his son, Hasan, as the new caliph. But Hasan, the grandson of the Prophet, had no interests in continuing the bloody struggle of his father (he considered this struggle contrary to Muhammed’s message), and agreed with Muawiya to retire to Medina. He died there in 669. Muawiya became the next caliphate and ruled from 661-80. He reunited the Islamic Empire, captured Rhodes, expanded territory in North Africa, raided Sicily, and unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople (Glubb 1960, 43).

Muawaiya died in 680. Prior to his death, he appointed his son, Yazid I, as the next caliph. Dissatisfied with this succession, Ali’s former followers called on Husein, Ali’s other son, to assume the caliphate. Heeding this call and refusing to submit to Yazid’s authority, Husein marched to Iraq to consolidate his support. Soldiers loyal to Yazid and the Umayyad family surrounded Husein and killed him outside of Karbala, Iraq in 680 (Armstrong 2002, 43). This event represented the second time that one of the Prophet’s direct descendants had been killed in Iraq. Ali and Husein, both martyrs of Shia Islam, were buried in al Najaf, Iraq and Karbala, respectively.

The Abbasid faction, claiming to be descended from the Prophet’s Uncle Abbas and his son Abdallah, overthrew the Umayyad dynasty in 750. In the period of the Abbasid caliphs (750-1258), Iraq was the center of a huge Islamic empire stretching from the plains of India in the east to present day Morocco. Abbasid Caliph Abu Jafar al-Mansur laid the foundations of his capital approximately sixty miles from the ancient city of Babylon and named it Baghdad. Baghdad eventually became a worldwide center of medicine, science, philosophy, law, and art. This great city regularly traded with lands as far away as Africa, Asia, and the Far East. Iraq’s impressive legacy has been a matter of pride for all Iraqis, regardless of ethnicity, and this pride has contributed to the overall conflict between the Iraqi people and its subsequent foreign occupiers, including the British and Americans.

Following the Islamic Arabs, the Central Asian Mongols invaded Iraq and destroyed Baghdad in 1258. Not only did the Mongols destroy many Iraqi cities, but they also ruined each city’s sophisticated irrigation system. Even with the assistance of modern technology, Iraq has yet again to reach the level of agricultural productivity of the Abbasid caliphs. After the Mongol invasion, Iraq came under the rule of various administrators until the sixteenth century. In 1509, the Persian Safavid Empire expanded its territory and incorporated most of present day Iraq. Control of Iraq changed hands periodically between the Safavid Empire and the Ottoman Empire for the next 100 years. In 1638, the Ottoman Sultan, Murad IV, expelled the Persians and initiated a period of uninterrupted Ottoman rule until World War I. Iraq too benefited from the Ottoman Tanzimat era (period of administration, conscription, law, and public education reforms) of the 1860s, which included the establishment of private property. These reforms replaced the feudal system of land ownership and tax farms with legally sanctioned property rights.

Iraq was administered as three separate provinces or vilayets (Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra) under appointed Ottoman governors. This administration was structured on the country’s ethnic makeup. Generally speaking, Iraq was populated by Kurds in the north (along with Christian Chaldeans and Assyrians), Sunnis in the central part of the country, and Shias in the south. There had also been a Jewish population in Baghdad until the state of Israel was established in 1948, after which the majority of this population immigrated to this new country. Overall, the Ottoman administration focused on the Tigris and Euphrates valleys where the majority of the population lived. During this period, the Sunnis gained the administrative experience that has allowed them to monopolize political power in the twentieth century. The Sunnis were able to take advantage of new educational and economic opportunities, while the Shias, kept out of the political process, were impoverished. Binary politics became the basis for internal conflict in Iraq for many generations to come.

The British put an end to the Ottoman administration in World War I. British interest in the Persian Gulf region originated in 1622, when the East India Company (EIC) signed an agreement with Persia. The EIC used its navy to defend the Persian Gulf and expel the Portuguese, who had established a trading monopoly in the region. Since that early beginning, the security of Persia and the Persian Gulf had been of significant importance to the British for two main reasons. These were the continued preservation of the free and secure trade of Indian and British shipping (the Persian Gulf had been dominated by pirates for over a century, until three EIC military expeditions forced them to capitulate in 1819) and the prevention of any other European power, in particular Russia, from establishing its influence anywhere near India, including Persia. Britain suspected that an expansionist-minded, Tsarist-ruled Russia intended to impose a protectorate over Persia, in order to secure an ice-free port in the Persian Gulf. Since this possibility potentially threatened British interests in India, the British directed significant diplomatic efforts to thwart Russian influence in the area (Lunt 1982, 21).

The role Iraq has played in the religious, historical, and cultural development of the Middle East is a source of considerable pride to the Iraqi people; a key component to their self-identity, regardless of their ethnicity. This proud self-identity has a significant influence on how it views the outside world, including Britain and the United States. Similarly, the fact that its past occupiers throughout history have viewed Iraq as a prize to be exploited has further shaped its view of the British and US occupations.

Thesis Question

The US and its coalition allies are not the first foreign force to invade and occupy Iraq. The Greeks, Mongols, Persians, Ottomans, and British all invaded Iraq and dealt with periodic uprisings during their occupation. During World War I, some Iraqis fought with Amir Feisal and the British to defeat Turkish forces due to a promise of a post-war independent Arab kingdom. After failing to deliver on that promise, the British quelled a significant uprising by Iraqi insurgents in 1920. A low-level insurgency festered until 1931. The British eventually handed over the majority of power to the Iraqis by establishing a pro-British monarchy in 1932. Overall, the British faced similar problems during their invasion and occupation of Iraq that the US has experienced as well. What wisdom, if any, can the British experience offer to help US formulate its strategy in dealing with post-Hussein Iraq?

The thesis question is: What wisdom from the British experience in Iraq (1914-1926), if any, can the US use to help accomplish its current goals in Iraq?

Background or Context of the Problem and the Research Question

The US swept Saddam from power in a whirlwind operation that lasted for three weeks. The euphoria of a quick victory over a long-time foe quickly dissipated with the rapid emergence of an armed resistance to the US-led occupying forces. Coalition forces, the US in particular, have suffered daily attacks; casualties rose quickly. Considering the brutal oppression wrought by their former leader, it was a shock to most Americans (including the author) that the Iraqi people would either participate in or tolerate by others (foreign fighters) an attack on coalition forces, their liberators from Saddam Hussein. As the US is not the first country to occupy the territory that is now called Iraq, what other country’s occupation can the US examine to best determine what wisdom applies to the current situation? Britain’s occupation is a potentially excellent case study to examine due to its recent experience in Iraq and the reality that many important factors (political, ethnic, and religious) during that time period have not significantly changed. Therefore, wisdom from that period may be valid for contemporary application.

Assumptions

Two assumptions are necessary to answer the thesis question within the time and length requirements set by the Director, Graduate Degree Programs (DGDP). First of all, wisdom must be definable. What constitutes wisdom? Is it an objective or subjective question? This thesis research must assume that wisdom can be defined and that it is relevant and can directly affect the strategy of the US administration of postwar Iraq.

The second assumption is closely related to the first – it must be assumed that historical analysis can provide insight to contemporary questions. By examining the past British administration, this thesis assumes that some conclusions can be derived that can provide the US wisdom to present and future stability operations in Iraq. These two assumptions and key definitions will be crucial in answering the thesis question.

Definitions

Several concepts, ideas, and terms will be defined in the thesis research. First, defining the conditions, circumstances and influences or the current operational environment in which US forces currently operate in Iraq is important to the thesis question. Second, establishing an acceptable definition of security is required. A safe and secure environment will probably be critical to the successful execution of the US mission in Iraq. What conditions constitute a secure environment? Third, defining the term overmatching firepower is important as well. Both the British and US have utilized overmatching firepower to help accomplish its goals in Iraq. Finally, establishing the definition of wisdom is critical. By comparing historical analysis with the operational environment, one should be able to discern whether a particular outcome constitutes the term “wisdom” in the context of this research.

Limitations

The most important limitation or weakness of the research will be its lack of depth due to the time constraints and length of the thesis. I will only examine the British experience from 1914-1926. Although the British maintained a military presence in Iraq until 1958, their experience from 1914-1926 is the most relevant for the exploration of this thesis. During this time period, the British invaded Iraq, established the country as a League of Nations Mandate in 1920, and created a new civil administration. Although later actions would significantly shape Iraq’s future as well, events during this time period will set the foundation for the country’s independence and its long-term relationship with Britain.

Due to length constraints, this thesis will focus on Britain’s military campaign, its formulation of national-level institutions, and its management of the civil administration. The examination of the civil administration will center mainly on education, health, revenue collection, administration of justice, law enforcement, oil, and land policy issues. A complete study of the administration of justice will not be possible due to its depth, but its most salient points will be addressed. Other issues such as transportation, finance, communication, agriculture, archeology, and public works will not be examined. The communication between British civil administrators in Iraq and their superiors in India and London will not be closely examined either. Although important, the high frequency of communication between British military officers and civil servants in Iraq and their chain-of-command in India and London makes it impossible to meaningfully address it in this thesis.

Similarly, existing sources on the British experience in Iraq do not provide many tactical details from the battalion level and below. Most of the historical records focus on the overall campaign and the actions of battalion sized units or higher. Specific actions and tactics, techniques, and procedures to quell civil disturbances or armed resistance to the British occupation are lacking as well. Available references concentrate on broad themes describing British counterinsurgency operations rather than specific tactics, techniques, or procedures. Therefore, the thesis will primarily address the actions of battalion sized units or larger in relation to conventional force-on-force or counterinsurgency operations. Similarly, only three or four accessible primary sources from the British colon...

Table of contents

• Title page
• TABLE OF CONTENTS
• ABSTRACT
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• ACRONYMS
• CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
• CHAPTER 2 - BRITISH MILITARY INTERVENTION, 1914-1918
• CHAPTER 3 - FORMATION OF THE IRAQI STATE, 1918-1926
• CHAPTER 4 - MANAGEMENT OF THE CIVIL ADMINISTRATION, 1914-1926
• CHAPTER 5 - ANALYSIS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
• ILLUSTRATIONS
• REQUEST FROM THE PUBLISHER
• REFERENCE LIST