Medicinal Plants in the Asia Pacific for Zoonotic Pandemics, Volume 3

Family Bixaceae to Portulacaceae

Christophe Wiart

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2021
• eBook ISBN: 9781000477313
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Pharmacology
• Index: Biological Sciences

Medicinal Plants in the Asia Pacific for Zoonotic Pandemics provides an unprecedented, comprehensive overview of the phylogeny, botany, ethnopharmacology, and pharmacology of more than 100 plants used in the traditional systems of Asia and Pacific medicine for the treatment of microbial infections. It discusses their actions and potentials against viruses, bacteria, and fungi that represent a threat of epidemic and pandemic diseases, with an emphasis on the molecular basis and cellular pathways.

This book presents for each plant the scientific name, the botanical classification, traditional medicinal uses, active chemical constituents, and pharmacology. This volume is a critical reference for anyone involved in the discovery of leads for the development of lead molecules or phytopharmaceutical products for the prevention or treatment of pandemic viral, bacterial, or fungal infections.

FEATURES

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• Includes phylogenetic presentation of medicinal plants and a chemotaxonomical rationale of antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal actions

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• Discusses chemical structure–activity relationship, pharmacokinetics, and oral bioavailability of antimicrobial principles

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• Introduces the molecular mechanism of natural products on viruses, bacteria, and fungi

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• Contains a selection of botanical plates and useful bibliographic references

This book is a useful research tool for postgraduates, academics, and the pharmaceutical, herbal, and nutrition industries. Medicinal Plants in the Asia Pacific for Zoonotic Pandemics includes commentary sections that invite further research and reflection on the fascinating and timely subject of the development of leads or herbals from Asia-Pacific medicinal plants to safeguard humanity against the forthcoming waves of viral, bacterial, or fungal pandemics. This book is an ideal reference text for medicinal plant enthusiasts.

8.5 Order Sapindales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Presl (1820)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003180371-2

8.5.1 Family Anacardiaceae R. Brown (1818)

The family Anacardiaceae consists of about 60 genera and 600 species of resinous or sappy trees, shrub, or climbers. The sap can induce anaphylactic shock by simple skin contact. The leaves are mostly alternate, simple or compound, coriaceous, with somewhat showy and characteristic secondary nerves. Stipules are absent. The inflorescences are panicles. The flowers are minute, whitish to green, with 5 sepals, 5 petals and 10 stamens and present a well-developed 5-lobed nectary disc. The gynoecium comprises 1–5 carpels fused into a 1–3 locular ovary, each locule containing a single ovule. The fruits are drupes. Members in this family produce antimicrobial hydrolysable tannins, biflavonoids, and vesicant alkyl phenols.

8.5.1.1 Anacardium occidentale L.

Synonyms: Acajuba occidentalis (L.) Gaertn.; Anacardium microcarpum Ducke; Cassuvium pomiferum Lam.

Common names: Cashew-nut tree; kajul; hijli badam (Bangladesh); svai chanti (Cambodia); yao guo (China); jambu monyet (Indonesia); gajus, jambu golok, keterek (Malaysia); thiho-thayet, shitkale, mak-mong-sang-yip (Myanmar); balubad (the Philippines); yaruang (Thailand); cây diêù (Vietnam)

Habitat: Cultivated

Distribution: Tropical Asia

Botanical observation: This beautiful tree grows to a height of 10 m leaves. The bole is seldom straight and the bark exudes upon incision a resinous and acrid sap which blackens on exposure to air. The wood is very valuable and exudes a yellow gum, which can raise blisters. The leaves are simple, spiral, and exstipulate. The petiole is about 2 cm long. The blade is coriaceous, obovate, 5–15 × 3–10 cm, tapering at base, round or blunt and often notched at apex, and shows 10–18 pairs of secondary nerves. The flowers are minute, with a sickly sweet odor and arranged in terminal panicles. The calyx develops 5 sepals which are about 1 cm long. The 5 petals are greenish – white to pink with red longitudical lines. The androecium includes up to 10 stamens. The style is about 1 cm long. The drupes are 2–3 cm long, greyish brown, asymmetrical, somewhat boxing gloves-shaped, up to 3 cm long, and sheltering a curved seed, which is edible after being roasted. The fruit pedicels are swollen, succulent, palatable, cushion-shaped, glossy, yellow, pink or red, pulpy, fragrant, and 3–6 cm long.

Medicinal uses: Leprosy, warts, syphilis (Bangladesh)

Strong antibacterial (Gram-positive) lipophilic alkyl-phenol: Anacardic acid (also known as 6-[8(Z), 11(Z), 14-pentadecatrienyl] salicylic acid; Log D = 6.4 at pH 7.4; molecular mass = 348.5 g/mol) inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 9372), Brevibacterium ammoniagenes (ATCC 6872), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 12598), Streptococcus mutans (ATCC 25175), and Propionibacterium acnes (ATCC 11827) with the MIC values of 3.1, 3.1, 6.2, 1.5, and 0.7 µg/mL, respectively (Kubo et al., 1993). Anacardic acid inhibited the growth of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 33591) and penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 11632) with the MIC values of 6.2 and 3.1 µg/mL, respectively (Muroi & Kubo, 1996).

Moderate antifungal akyl-phenol: Anacardic acid at the concentration of 75 µM abrogated the spore germination of Magnaporthe oryzae (Muzaffar et al., 2016).

Antibiotic potentiator alkyl-phenol: Anacardic acid decreased the resistance of Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 33591) to methicillin (Muroi & Kubo, 1996).

Strong antiviral (non-enveloped, segmented, linear, double-stranded RNA) polar extract: Aqueous extract of leaves at the concentration of 4 µg/mL inhibited the replication of the Human rotavirus and the Simian rotavirus in African Rhesus monkey kidney cells (MA-104) by 25.9 and 84.5%, respectively (Gonçalves et al., 2005).

Strong antiviral (enveloped, segmented, linear, single stranded (−) RNA) hydrophilic bisflavone: Agathisflavone (Log D = −0.9 at pH 7.4; molecular mass = 538.4 g/mol) inhibited the replication of the Influenza A virus in Madin-Darby canine kidney with the EC₅₀ value of 1.3 µM and the selectivity index of 268.4 (De Freitas et al., 2020). Agathisflavone inhibited Influenza A H3N2 wild type and H1N1 wild type with the IC₅₀ values of 20.4 and 28.6 µM, respectively (De Freitas et al., 2020).

Commentaries

1. Long chain in anacardic acid may contribute to bacterial cystoplasmic membrane penetration.
2. Malays eat young fresh leaves as protective medicine or “ulam.”
3. Natural products inhibiting Influenza viruses in vitro are often hydrophilic flavonoids.

References

• De Freitas, C.S., Rocha, M.E., Sacramento, C.Q., et al., 2020. Agathisflavone, a biflavonoid from Anacardium occidentale L., inhibits influenza virus neuraminidase. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, 20(2), pp. 111–120.
• Gonçalves, J.L.S., Lopes, R.C., Oliveira, D.B., et al., 2005. In vitro anti-rotavirus activity of some medicinal plants used in Brazil against diarrhea. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 99(3), pp. 403–407.
• Kubo, I., Muroi, H., Himejima, M., Yamagiwa, Y., Mera, H., Tokushima, K., Ohta, S. and Kamikawa, T., 1993. Structure-antibacterial activity relationships of anacardic acids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 41(6), pp. 1016–1019.
• Muroi, H. and Kubo, I., 1996. Antibacterial activity of anacardic acid and totarol, alone and in combination with methicillin, against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 80(4), pp. 387–394.
• Muzaffar, S., Bose, C., Banerji, A., et al., 2016. Anacardic acid induces apoptosis-like cell death in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 100(1), pp. 323–335.

8.5.1.2 Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe

Synonym: Dracontomelon duperreanum Pierre; Dracontomelon mangiferum Blume; Dracontomelon sinensis Stapf; Paliurus dao Blanco

Common names: New Guinea walnut, Papua New Guinea walnut, Pacific walnut; dahu (Indonesia); sengkuang (Malaysia); nga-bauk (Myanmar); mon (Papua New Guinea); dao, lamyo (the Philippines); phrachao ha phra ong (Thailand); sau (Vietnam)

Habitat: River banks and swampy areas in rainforest, cultivated

Distribution: From India to the Solomon Islands

Botanical observation: This majestic tree grows to about 40 m tall. The bole is straight and buttressed. The bark is greyish brown, the inner bark is pink, and a resin is exuded upon incision. The stems are covered with a few rusty hairs at apex. The leaves are spiral, imparipinnate, and exstipulate. The rachis is 30–45 cm long and presents 5–8 pairs of folioles which are 4–22.5 × 2.5–7.5 cm. The folioles are oblong, glossy, marked with 10–15 pairs of secondary nerves, round to somewhat asymmetrical at base, and acuminate at apex. The panicles are about 60 cm long, lax, and present numerous fragrant flowers. The calyx is minute and 5-lobed. The 5 petals are about 7 mm long. The androecium includes 10 stamens. A disc is present. The gynoecium includes 5 carpels which are partially free. The drupes are globose, up to 4 cm across, green turning yellow to brownish, edible, and with 5 oval markings on the upper side when dry.

Medicinal use: Dysentery (Malaysia, Philippines); ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Foreword
• Preface
• Author
• 8.4 Order Malvales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Presl (1820)
• 8.5 Order Sapindales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Presl (1820)
• 8.6 Order Santalales R. Br. ex Bercht. & J. Presl (1820)
• 8.7 Order Caryophyllales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Presl (1820)
• Bibliography
• Index