Freshwater Pollution and Aquatic Ecosystems

Environmental Impact and Sustainable Management

Gowhar Hamid Dar, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, Mohammad Aneesul Mehmood, Humaira Qadri

• Publisher: Apple Academic Press
• Year: 2021
• Print ISBN:
  9781771889582
• eBook ISBN:
  9781000291193
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• Subtopic: Biology

This new volume addresses the environmental impacts of pollution on freshwater aquatic ecosystems and presents sustainable management and remediation practices and advanced technology help to address the different types of pollutants.

Freshwater Pollution and Aquatic Ecosystems: Environmental Impact and Sustainable Management considers the need for sustainable, efficient, and cost-effective tools and technologies to assess, monitor, and properly manage the increasing issues of aquatic pollution. It provides detailed accounts of the phenomena and mechanisms related to aquatic pollution and highlights the problems and threats associated with pollution contamination in freshwater. It provides useful insight into the sustainable and advanced pollution remediation technology adopted by different countries for the monitoring, assessment, and sustainable management of pollution.

The chapters in the volume evaluate the sources of harmful pollutants, which include industrial effluents, sewage, and runoff from agricultural industries, which result in toxic microbes, organic waste, oils, and high load of nutrients. Unsustainable management practices of domestic sewage and indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides lead to the technological disturbance of aquatic biota. In addition to harming aquatic biota, these pollutants find their way into the human body through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption and finally tend to bio-accumulate in trophic levels of the food chain, which poses a major risk to human beings.

This book will be a valuable resource for ecologists, environmentalists, scientists, and many others for their work in understanding and management of aquatic pollutants in freshwater biospheres.

CHAPTER 1 Water Pollution: Diseases and Health Impacts

SADAF ALI,¹ SHIEKH AMIR,² SHAFAT ALI,^1,3 MUNEEB U. REHMAN,^1,4 SABHIYA MAJID,¹ and ALI MOHD YATOO^3,5

¹ Department of Biochemistry, Government Medical College (GMC), Karan Nagar, Srinagar–190010, Jammu and Kashmir, India

² Department of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Government Medical College (GMC), Karan Nagar, Srinagar–190010, Jammu and Kashmir, India

³ Centre of Research for Development (CORD), University of Kashmir, Srinagar–190006, Hazratbal, Jammu and Kashmir, India

⁴ Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh–11451, Saudi Arabia” E-mail: [email protected]

⁵ Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar–190006, Hazratbal, Jammu and Kashmir, India

ABSTRACT

Environmental pollution is a serious problem nowadays, especially due to growing industrialization and urbanization. The use of water bodies for waste disposal has led to devastating effects both on human and aquatic life. The contamination of drinking water has an equal impact on the health of children as well as adults. Aquatic fauna also gets affected due to deprivation of oxygen supply to these organisms as a result of water pollution. Various microbial diseases like cholera, hepatitis (usually subtype E), amoebiasis, gastroenteritis, shigellosis, and various other viral and parasitic infections spread through contaminated drinking water or food. The contamination of water bodies by different types of heavy metals cannot be under estimated. In Japan, contamination of water bodies by cadmium has led to cadmium nephropathy and Itai-Itai disease. Similarly, Minimata disease is a severe form of neuropathy induced by contamination of water bodies due to mercury and its various compounds. Lead poisoning also influences the health of people, and one of the sources being contamination in the water bodies. Strategies should be developed for the prevention of waterborne diseases, and awareness programs are the need of the day to prevent such illnesses in the future. Nature is divine, and therefore, it is important to prevent pollution in any form and nurture both aquatic life and human health and, as a whole, our ecosystem.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

“Water, Water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink.”

—Samuel Taylor

Water is an essential vital element to the human body. Water makes life possible on this earth, making water and life go hand in hand. Inside the human body, water acts as both a solvent, as well as a buffer. Water provides sustenance to all living organisms, including plants, animals, pathogens, as well as microorganisms. A human body is made up of around 70% water. Some amount of water is lost through metabolism, respiration, bowel movements, and urine. Humans use water for drinking and various other purposes (Bibi et al., 2016). Even being vital elements, most of the people on earth don’t consume water in its purest form. Poor quality of drinking water drastically has an effect on human health. According to a recent report, a minimum of 2 billion humans worldwide utilize water for drinking purposes from sources infected with feces (WHO, 2018). Decreasing the quality or quantity of water poses a serious threat to the human body and health. Water is polluted due to the addition of harmful substances that alter water quality (Alrumman, 2016) and cause deleterious effects on the environment and human health (Briggs, 2003). Human activities contribute to environmental pollution directly or indirectly. Automobile exhausts contain various harmful gases like nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide, in addition to black soot, which pollutes the atmosphere. Domestic wastes from household activities, agricultural wastes also pollute the atmosphere. The use of pesticides and fertilizers contribute to water pollution. Waste materials from tanneries also contain many unsafe chemicals and release a foul smell. When water is contaminated with bacteria, protozoans, or viruses, it leads to the development of waterborne diseases. The majority of infectious diseases originate from polluted water. World Health Organization (WHO) reported that about 80% of diseases arise from water. The quality of drinking water lacks WHO standards in different nations of the world (Khan et al., 2013). Poor water quality causes about 3.1% of deaths (Pawari and Gawande, 2015). Various diseases such as polio, diarrhea, dysentery, and cholera are transmitted via poor hygiene and infected drinking water (WHO, 2018). Diseases like vomiting, kidney problems, gastroenteritis, and skin disorders also spread via utilizing infected water (Juneja and Chauhdary, 2013).

1.2 WATER POLLUTION INCIDENCE

World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF reported that during the year 2000, about 2.1 billion human populace has no access to an adequate way of hygiene, and approximately 1.1 billion lack a better water supply. Increased mobility of people and traveling to various countries has led to the global menace of waterborne diseases. National surveillance systems are required to prevent a wide array of diseases due to water pollution. Waterborne diseases occur due to pollution of water bodies, either via pathogenic protozoa, bacteria, viruses, or by other means like chemical wastes. The use of this contaminated water for household purposes such as cooking, drinking, bathing, and washing leads to direct transmission of pathogens to humans.

1.3 MEANS OF WATER POLLUTION

Organic as well as inorganic carbon affects the eutrophication of lakes (Goldman, 1972), which ultimately affects the chemical composition of water bodies and rivers (Crowder, 1991). Pollution is also caused by spillage into the water bodies (Sharma, 1999). Toxic organic contaminants of farms and agricultural wastages in the water stream were also reported by Thanas et al. (2001). The presence of organic flora and microorganisms in oceanic sediments has been reported by Volterra et al. (1985). Some microorganisms are helpful in the removal of nutrients from the water bodies (Tam and Wang, 1989). Underground water bodies contain various bacteria (Anderson and Stentrom, 1987). The number of Coliforms in the river has been studied in Jordan by Hades et al. (2000). Heavy metals have always contributed to the pollution of water bodies. These are present in a variety of industrial effluents. They are absorbed by hydrophytes. These metals also precipitate in the sediments (Gonzalez et al., 2000). Sinha et al. (1993) conducted a study on the uptake of magnesium and chromium by the aquatic plant such as Hydrilla and was supported by Say and Witton (1983). The main sources of water pollution are outlined in Figure 1.1.

FIGURE 1.1 Major sources of water pollution.

1.4 DISEASES DUE TO WATER POLLUTION (WATERBORNE DISEASES)

Waterborne diseases include a range of ailments or infections commonly caused by the consumption of infected water. Diseases associated with water may be categorized as water-based, water-vector, waterborne, and water-washed based on their mode of transmission. Waterborne pathogenic organisms are a key public health concern that has emerged in all global nations. Worldwide epidemiology of cholera was studied with a novel dimension after the appearance of vibrio cholera O139. The outburst of chlorine-resistant cryptosporidium leads to a reassessment of the sufficiency of present-day water-quality policy. A range of microscopic organisms like hepatitis viruses, Campylobacter jejuni, Mycobacteria, Giardia lamblia, Legionella, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have been known as causative agents for waterborne infections (Bagchi, 1993; Bert, 1998). The common waterborne diseases are described in Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1 Common Waterborne Diseases

Disease	Causative Agent	Means of Transmission	Symptoms
Gastroenteritis	Viruses	Polluted foodstuffs or drinking water or close contact with an infected person	Diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, fever, fatigue, dehydration.
Typhoid fever	Salmonella typhii	Contaminated food or water	Generalized weakness, constipation, pain in the abdomen, headache, vomiting, and skin rashes with rose-pink spots.
Shigellosis	Shigella	Ingestion of the organism with infected food or water	Nausea, diarrhea, flatulence, abdominal cramps, and vomiting.
Cryptosporidiosis	Cryptosporidium	Drinking infected water	Watery diarrhea with or without unsolved cough
Escherichia coli infection	Escherichia coli	Packed dairy products, juices, contaminated drinking water	Sepsis, hemolytic uremic syndrome, bowel necrosis, mastitis, gram-negative pneumonia, and peritonitis.
Campylobacteriosis	Campylobacter jejuni	Sexual contact, consumption of unpasteurized milk, infected food, water, and poorly cooked chicken	Inflammatory condition and bloody diarrhea
Giardiasis	Giardia lamblia	Consumption of infected foodstuffs or drinking water	Abdominal pain leading to diarrhea and weight loss
Amoebiasis	Entamoeba		Abdominal cramps and mild diarrhea
Cholera	Vibrio cholera	Ingestion of a toxic strain through food or drinks	Watery diarrhea, cramps, abdominal discomfort, and vomiting.
Hepatitis A	Hepatovirus A	Contamination of food or water	Fever, fatigue, diarrhea, nausea, and gastric upset
Adenoviral disease	Adenovirus	Contaminates drinking water, etc.	Tonsillitis, conjunctivitis, ear infections, meningitis, and encephalitis, and also to bronchopneumonia

1.5 COMMON DISEASES CAUSED BY USE OF CONTAMINATED DRINKING WATER

1.5.1 GASTROENTERITIS

This ailment is characterized by the inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract (Chlossberg, 2015). Gastroenteritis is caused by the intake of polluted foodstuffs or drinking water or close contact with an infected person (Ciccarelli, 2013). The disease is manifested in the form of diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain (Singh and Amandeep, 2010). Symptoms also include fever, fatigue, dehydration, and water and salt loss (Ciccarelli, 2013; Ferris, 2015). The symptoms can last up to two weeks (Chlosberg, 2015). Gastroenteritis is also called stomach or gastric flu, but it is unlikely that of influenza infection (Shors, 2013). Gastroenteritis is commonly caused by viruses (Richard, 2006). However, this infection can be caused by bacteria, parasites, and fungus, also (Ciccarelli, 2013). Campylobacter jejuni infection is the most common cause of adult diarrhea (Marshall, 2011).

Children are more prone to develop rotavirus diarrhea, and the disease can be severe (Tate et al., 2012). Rotavirus vaccine is recommended for the prevention of infection in children (Cicarelli, 2013). Treatment includes rehydration in the form of fluids and ORS in mild to moderate cases and intravenous fluids in severe infection....

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half-Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Contributors
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• 1. Water Pollution: Diseases and Health Impacts
• 2. Toxicity of Heavy Metals in Freshwater Fishes: Challenges and Concerns
• 3. Chlorpyrifos Toxicity in Fishes: A Perspective
• 4. Neurotoxicity of Heavy Metals in Fishes: A Mechanistic Approach
• 5. Mechanism of Toxicity in Aquatic Life
• 6. Pesticide Pollution in an Aquatic Environment
• 7. Benthic Macroinvertebrates as Bioindicators of Water Quality in Freshwater Bodies
• 8. Biomonitoring and Bioindicators
• 9. Zooplankton Community: A Valuable Bio-Indicator Tool in Disturbed Wetlands
• 10. Mycoremediation of Pollutants in Aquatic Environs
• 11. Genetically Modified Organisms as Tools for Water Bioremediation
• 12. Bio-Indicator Species and Their Role in Monitoring Water Pollution
• Index