The World of the Bahá'í Faith

Robert H. Stockman

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2021
• eBook ISBN: 9780429648281
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Religion

The World of the Bahá'í Faith is an outstanding guide to the Bahá'í Faith and its culture in all its geographical and historical diversity. Written by a distinguished team of international contributors, this volume explores the origin of this religion and contains substantial thematic articles on the living experience of the global Bahá'í community. The volume is organised into six distinct sections:

• Leadership and Authoritative Texts
• Theology
• Humanity
• Society
• The Contemporary Bahá'í Community
• History and Spread of the Bahá'í Community

These sections cover such themes as the afterlife, artistic expression, Bahá'í institutions, devotional life, diversity, economics, education, the environment and sustainability, family life, gender, human nature, interfaith relations, international governance, law, marriage, peace, persecution, philosophy, race, science and religion, scripture, spirituality, and work. The development of the Bahá'í Faith is outlined in ten regional articles.

This volume provides an authoritative and accessible source of information on all topics important to the Bahá'í Faith. The World of the Bahá'í Faith will be essential reading to students and scholars studying world religions and comparative religion. It will also be of interest to those in related fields such as sociology, political science, anthropology, and ethics.

PART 1 Leadership and authoritative texts

1 OVERVIEW The Central Figures, the institutions of the Bahá’í Faith, and the Covenant

Shahin Vafai

DOI: 10.4324/9780429027772-3

This chapter offers an overview of the Central Figures and institutions of the Bahá’í Faith from its inception in 1844 until today. The Bahá’í Faith is based on the teachings of three Central Figures: the Báb (1819–1850), Bahá’u’lláh (1817–1892), and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1844–1921). Their successors were the two principal institutions of the Bahá’í Administrative Order—the Guardianship, which was occupied by Shoghi Effendi (1897–1957) from 1921 until 1957, and the Universal House of Justice, which, since its establishment in 1963, has been the Head of the Bahá’í Faith. In addition to exploring the claims, authority, and functions of these Figures and institutions, the discussion that follows briefly summarizes their history and achievements. Also examined in this chapter is the Bahá’í concept of the Covenant, the arrangements described in Bahá’í texts for the succession of authority and the means for the maintenance of the unity and integrity of the Bahá’í Faith. Subsequent chapters examine the lives and writings of the Central Figures and Shoghi Effendi as well as the establishment of the Universal House of Justice and its communications.

The Báb

The first of the Bahá’í Faith’s Central Figures was Siyyid ‘Alí-Muḥammad, a native of Shiraz, Iran, who came to be known as the Báb (‘the Gate’). In the 1840s, the Báb, a merchant in His twenties, advanced the twofold claim of being the Mouthpiece of God on earth and the Herald of One greater than Himself. As to the former claim, He asserted that He was a Prophet or ‘Manifestation of God’, like Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and other Founders of the world’s great religions. The Báb, moreover, averred that He was the long-awaited promised one, in particular, the Qa’im and the Mahdi awaited by Muslims.

The Báb’s explanations of the station, functions, and relationship of the Manifestations of God laid the doctrinal foundations of the Bahá’í Faith, revealing the nature of His own claim and how He related to His followers. The Báb taught that God is inaccessible to humanity and that the only path to knowing God is recognizing His Manifestation. Therefore, whoever recognizes the Manifestation of God ‘hath known all that is true and right, and hath attained all that is good and seemly’ (The Báb, Selections, 11). He also declared that the Manifestations did not present conflicting approaches to God; rather, They have appeared in the world as part of one spiritual process, like the repeated appearance of the same sun: ‘The process of the rise and setting of the Sun of Truth will thus indefinitely continue—a process that hath had no beginning and will have no end’ (The Báb, Selections, 106).

In addition to declaring Himself a Manifestation of God, the Báb maintained that He was the forerunner of, or ‘the Gate’ to, One greater than Himself. This figure, whom the Báb referred to as ‘Him Whom God shall make manifest’, would have the mission of inaugurating an era of righteousness and peace. The writings of the Báb are replete with references to ‘Him Whom God shall make manifest’. Many references in the Báb’s writings implied the fairly imminent appearance of Him Whom God shall make manifest, such as nine or nineteen years after the time of the Báb.

The Báb’s claims evoked an immediate response from His countrymen. Within a few years of the declaration of His mission, thousands from all classes of Persian society, including the Shah’s emissary (Siyyid Yaḥyáy-i-Dárábí), who had been delegated to investigate the Báb’s assertions, had been won over to the Báb’s religion. Threatened by the Báb’s growing movement, the organized forces of church and state quickly arose in opposition to Him and His followers. Supported by the Muslim religious hierarchy, Persian authorities arrested and exiled the Báb and incarcerated Him for over three years. They also took the life of nearly every one of the leading figures in the Bábí community. When such actions did not have the desired effect, Mírzá Taqí Khán, the Grand Vizir of Náṣiri’d-Dín Sháh, ordered that the Báb be put to death. The order was carried out in July 1850 in the city of Tabriz, where a firing squad publicly executed the Báb before thousands of onlookers. In the years immediately preceding and following the Báb’s death, some 20,000 of His followers were killed for their religious beliefs.

Beyond the influence the Báb had on the lives of thousands of Persians during and immediately after His ministry, who accepted His claims and were even willing to suffer for His Cause, His long-term impact may be measured in other ways. The Báb left a permanent legacy through His extensive writings, comprising approximately five million words, which continue to be studied more than a century and half after His death. The continuing influence of the Báb is most prominently seen in the millions of followers of the Bahá’í Faith worldwide who regard Him as one of the two Founders of their religion; study His life and teachings; recite His prayers; annually commemorate His birth, declaration, and martyrdom; and pay homage at His Shrine. The bicentenary of the birth of the Báb, which occurred in 2019, was celebrated by Bahá’í communities in thousands of localities around the world.

Bahá’u’lláh

The highest ranking of the Bahá’í Faith’s three Central Figures was Mírzá Ḥusayn-‘Alí, surnamed Bahá’u’lláh (‘the Glory of God’). Bahá’u’lláh was an early follower of the Báb, who had commissioned His first disciple, Mullá Ḥusayn-i-Bushrú’í, to deliver His message to Bahá’u’lláh. In turn, Bahá’u’lláh immediately accepted and arose to champion the Báb’s Cause. Due to His prominence and defense of the Báb’s Faith, Bahá’u’lláh was persecuted, like many of the Báb’s followers. In 1852, a couple of obscure youth, believing that Náṣiri’d-Dín Sháh had been responsible for the Báb’s death, made an unsuccessful attempt to kill the Sháh. Though Bahá’u’lláh had no involvement in the matter, He and many other followers of the Báb were arrested. He was confined for some four months in the infamous ‘Black Pit’ dungeon in Tehran. Bahá’u’lláh would later describe, in an epistle to Náṣiri’d-Dín Sháh, that it was during this imprisonment that He received the first intimation of His mission:

O King! I was but a man like others, asleep upon My couch, when lo, the breezes of the All-Glorious were wafted over Me, and taught Me the knowledge of all that hath been. This thing is not from Me, but from One Who is Almighty and All-Knowing.

(Bahá’u’lláh, Summons, 98; Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, 102)

This experience occurred in the ninth year following the inauguration of the Báb’s religion. However, it was not until 1863—nineteen years from the inception of the mission of the Báb—that Bahá’u’lláh publicly disclosed to others His claim to be the one anticipated by the Báb and God’s previous Manifestations.

The Persian authorities released Bahá’u’lláh from prison in 1853 and decreed that He go into exile. Declining an offer from the Russian government for refuge in Russia, Bahá’u’lláh chose instead to go, with His family, to Baghdad in the Ottoman Empire. The nearly decade-long period Bahá’u’lláh was in Baghdad witnessed some of His most important literary works. Among these were the ‘Hidden Words’, a collection of moral aphorisms that constitute the essence of His ethical teachings, as well as the ‘Seven Valleys’, His greatest mystical composition. The most important book Bahá’u’lláh wrote during this time was the Kitáb-i-Íqán (the Book of Certitude), the preeminent doctrinal work of His ministry. As Bahá’u’lláh’s prestige grew in Baghdad, Persian authorities—fearful of the renewal of the influence of the Bábi religion—urged the Ottoman government to exile Him farther away from Persia. Ottoman authorities acceded to the request and in 1863 effected Bahá’u’lláh’s transfer to Istanbul. Immediately before His departure from Baghdad, Bahá’u’lláh declared His mission to His companions. Over time, as Bahá’u’lláh’s claim to be ‘Him Whom God shall make manifest’ and the promised Manifestation of God became known, the vast majority of the Báb’s followers accepted Him. Bahá’u’lláh would later describe the period of His declaration in Baghdad as the ‘Most Great Festival’ and the ‘King of Festivals’ (Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, para. 112).

Following Bahá’u’lláh’s transfer to the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Persian officials feared that He might attract prominent persons there, so they pressed Ottoman authorities to relocate Him, this time to a more remote location. Four months after arriving in Istanbul, Bahá’u’lláh and His family were exiled to the city of Edirne, located at the western edge of the empire, where He lived for just under five years. When this action did not extinguish Bahá’u’lláh’s influence, Ottoman authorities decided to take more drastic action by exiling Him, His family members, and some of His devotees to the prison city of ‘Akká in the Holy Land. In late August 1868, Bahá’u’lláh and His companions arrived in ‘Akká, where He was initially incarcerated in a prison within the prison city. He was subsequently transferred to house arrest. However, as the local population, including officials, became familiar with Bahá’u’lláh, He became a respected figure, and His conditions of confinement were relaxed, though He nominally remained a prisoner for the rest of His life.

During His years in Edirne and ‘Akká, Bahá’u’lláh’s proclamation of His mission took a new form: collectively to the kings and rulers of the world and individually to several of them. He addressed Sultan ‘Abdu’l-’Azíz, Náṣiri’d-Dín Sháh, Napoleon III (twice), Queen Victoria, Tsar Alexander II, Pope Pius IX, and other political and religious leaders (Bahá’u’lláh, Summons; Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, 171–76, 206–13). Bahá’u’lláh enunciated, in the course of these epistles and in other writings during His twenty-four years in ‘Akká, spiritual and social teachings and concepts related to the governance of society. He described His mission as ‘to build anew the whole world’ (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings, 100). Of the principles set forth in these writings, the most vital is that of the oneness and wholeness of the human race. ‘The earth’, He affirmed, ‘is but one country, and mankind its citizens’ (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings, 250). Further, ‘The well-being of mankind, its peace and security, are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established’ (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings, 286).

Bahá’u’lláh wrote His most important work—the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (‘The Most Holy Book’)—a few years after His exile to ‘Akká. In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Bahá’u’lláh set forth His major laws and ordinances on prayer, fasting, marriage, divorce, inheritance, burial, and other matters. Further, the Book contained various exhortations and prohibitions and discussed spiritual concepts and principles. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas is distinctive among the holy books of the world’s faiths in that it addressed issues that historically have been the cause of division in religion: namely, questions of successorship, interpretation, and administration following the passing of the founder of the religion. In it, Bahá’u’lláh pointed to one who would succeed Him: ‘When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root’ (Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, para. 121). He also identified one who, after His passing, would be an interpreter of His writings: ‘refer ye whatsoever ye understand not in the Book to Him Who hath branched from this mighty Stock’ (Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, para. 174). In the Kitáb-i-‘Ahd (the Book of the Covenant), Bahá’u’lláh quoted the Kitáb-i-Aqdas and made explicit what had been implicit in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas: namely, identifying His eldest son, ‘Abbás Effendi (later known as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá or ‘Servant of Bahá’), as the figure alluded to in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh, 221). In yet another work, in reference to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahá’u’lláh emphasized: ‘Whoso turneth towards Him hath turned towards God, and whoso turneth away from Him hath turned away from My Beauty, hath repudiated My Proof, and transgressed against Me’ (Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahá’u’lláh, 135).

As detailed further later in this chapter, Bahá’u’lláh also established in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas and in His other writings an ‘Order’—a system of governance—that had the potential to administer His Faith for centuries into the future. Through His appointment of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as His successor and authorized interpreter, Bahá’u’lláh established a Covenant with His followers that was intended to preserve the unity and integrity of His Faith. This Covenant was perpetuated by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá through the Administrative Order that Bahá’u’lláh had created and whose features ‘Abdu’l-Bahá would elaborate. The essence of the Covenant is, according to authoritative Bahá’í texts, the continuation of divine guidance after the passing of Bahá’u’lláh through the presence in the world of an institution to which His followers could turn and which can state the will of God. Whereas the absence of a clear, explicit, and written designation of the successor of the Manifestation of God has in the past led to dissensions, controversies, and schisms, Bahá’u’lláh sought to prevent that situation from occurring in His religion by instituting the Covenant. Thus, for followers of Bahá’u’lláh, the authoritative Bahá’í texts determine the questions of succession, interpretation, and administration. Because of the clarity of those texts, if an individual attempts to claim authority, create division, or deviate from the original teachings, it is recognizable by the community of followers and can be remedied (see chapter 34 on the Covenant). The efficacy of these arrangements is evidenced by the fact that nearly 175 years after its founding and despite occasiona...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents Page
• List of illustrations Page
• List of contributors Page
• Introduction
• Part 1 Leadership and authoritative texts
• Part 2 Theology
• Part 3 Humanity
• Part 4 Society
• Part 5 The contemporary Bahá’í community
• Part 6 History and spread of the Bahá’í community
• Glossary
• General Index