Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils and Rocks of India

Sanjay Kumar Shukla, Sanjay Kumar Shukla

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2021
• ISBN:
  9781000519914
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Civil Engineering
• Index: Technology & Engineering

This book presents mainly the geotechnical details of geomaterials (soils and rocks) found in all the 36 states and union territories of India. There are 37 chapters in this book. Chapter 1 provides an overview of geomaterials, focusing on their engineering properties as determined based on the project site investigations and laboratory/field tests; this will help readers understand the technical details explained throughout the book, with each chapter dealing with geomaterials of one state/union territory only.

Each chapter, contributed by a team of authors, follows a common template with the following sections: introduction, major types of soils and rocks, properties of soils and rocks, use of soils and rocks as construction materials, foundation and other geotechnical structures, other geomaterials, natural hazards, case studies and field tests, geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks, concluding remarks and references.

All the chapters cover highly practical information and technical data for application in ground infrastructure projects, including foundations of structures (buildings, towers, tanks, machines and so on), highway, railway and airport pavements, embankments, retaining structures/walls, dams, reservoirs, canals and ponds, and landfills and tunnels. These details are also highly useful for professionals dealing with mining, oil and gas projects and agricultural and aquacultural engineering projects. Although this book covers the Indian ground characteristics, the information provided can be helpful in some suitable forms to the professionals of other countries having similar ground conditions and applications.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Sanjay Kumar Shukla

Edith Cowan University

DOI: 10.1201/9781003177159-1

CONTENTS

1.1 Soil and rock

1.2 India and its states and union territories

1.3 Structure and use of this book

1.3.1 Contents

1.3.2 Introduction

1.3.3 Major types of soils and rocks

1.3.4 Properties of soils and rocks

1.3.5 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials

1.3.6 Foundations and other geotechnical structures

1.3.7 Other geomaterials

1.3.8 Natural hazards

1.3.9 Case studies and field tests

1.3.10 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks

1.3.11 Concluding remarks

1.3.12 References

1.4 Concluding remarks

References

1.1 Soil and rock

The materials that constitute the Earth’s crust are arbitrarily divided by civil engineers into soil and rock. Soil, a natural aggregate of mineral grains, comprises all the materials in the surface layer of the Earth’s crust that are loose enough to be moved by a spade or shovel. In general, soil is a particulate and multiphase system consisting of three phases, namely solid, liquid and gas. The space in a soil mass occupied by liquid and/or gas is known as the void. Dry soil has only air in the void, while the void volume of a fully saturated soil is occupied by water only. There are several phase relationships and inter-relationships as detailed in the textbook of Shukla (2014). Based on the method of formation, soils are classified as residual soils, sedimentary soils, organic soils and fills (or man-made soils). Figure 1.1 shows a project site view of the soil mass. Permeability, compressibility and shear strength are the most important properties of soil, which are used in a suitable form by civil engineers for designing geotechnical structures and other ground-related infrastructures.

Figure 1.1 A project site view of the soil mass.

Rock is a natural aggregate of mineral grains connected by strong and permanent internal cohesive forces and occurs in large masses and fragments. Rocks generally require blasting for their excavation. Based on their formation by geological processes, rocks are classified as igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro and rhyolite are examples of igneous rocks. Sandstone, limestone, shale and conglomerate are examples of sedimentary rocks. Quartzite, marble, slate, mica schist, graphite and gneiss are examples of metamorphic rocks. A rock mass generally behaves as an inhomogeneous and anisotropic material because of the presence of discontinuities in different forms such as joints, fractures and bedding planes. Figure 1.2 shows a project site view of the rock mass. Permeability, strength/stiffness and durability are important properties of rocks.

Figure 1.2 A project site view of the rock mass.

The index properties of soils and rocks are total unit weight, void ratio, specific gravity of solids, water content, degree of saturation and water absorption. For soils, consistency limits, namely, liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit, and particle size classification are the index properties, which help in classifying the soil and predicting its behaviour during the initial planning/designing of a project site.

Soil and rock support the structural foundations, and they are used as construction materials in various civil/geotechnical/infrastructure engineering projects.

The engineering properties of soil and rock at and/or beneath the ground surface at a project site can vary dramatically. A thorough site investigation (also known as site exploration) is therefore a prerequisite for the design of civil engineering structures and mining excavations. The purpose of site investigation is to conduct a scientific examination of the site for collecting as much information as possible at a minimal cost about the existing topographical and geological features of the site, for example, exposed overburden, course of streams/rivers nearby, rock outcrop, hillock or valley, and vegetation, and mainly the subsurface conditions underlying the site (Shukla, 2015).

The subject dealing with soil, rock and similar materials (e.g., coal ashes, mine tailings) is known as geotechnical engineering. This subject involves analysis, design, construction, maintenance and renovation of geotechnical structures, which can be categorised into the following seven basic types: foundation, retaining wall, slope, embankment, earth dam, tunnel and pavement (Shukla, 2014, 2015). Geotechnical engineering presents cost-effective, sustainable and environmentally friendly solutions to soil and rock problems. Sound background knowledge of engineering geology, soil mechanics and rock mechanics is essential for becoming a geotechnical engineer.

1.2 India and its states and union territories

India, officially the Republic of India and also known as Bharat, Hindustan and Aryavarta, is a constitutional country in South Asia with New Delhi as its capital. It has 28 states and 8 union territories (UTs) as listed below (Figure 1.3):

Figure 1.3 Map of India showing its capital, 28 states and 8 UTs with their capitals, state boundaries and international boundaries (Maps of India, 2021).

States of India

1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jharkhand
11. Karnataka
12. Kerala
13. Madhya Pradesh
14. Maharashtra
15. Manipur
16. Meghalaya
17. Mizoram
18. Nagaland
19. Odisha
20. Punjab
21. Rajasthan
22. Sikkim
23. Tamil Nadu
24. Telangana
25. Tripura
26. Uttarakhand
27. Uttar Pradesh
28. West Bengal

Union Territories of India

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2. Chandigarh
3. Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli
4. Delhi
5. Jammu and Kashmir
6. Ladakh
7. Lakshadweep
8. Puducherry

With reference to land area, India ranks the seventh-largest country in the world and is the second-most populous country (Britannica, 2021). Though the country’s population remains largely rural, Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi are the three most populous cities of India. Bengaluru, Chennai and Hyderabad are amongst the world’s fastest-growing high-technology centres. India has roughly one-third coastline, bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. India is bounded on the northwest by Pakistan, on the north by Nepal, China and Bhutan, and on the east by Myanmar and Bangladesh. In the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka is in the vicinity of India, about 65 km off the southeast coast of India, and also the Maldives. Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia (Britannica, 2021; Wikipedia, 2021). The Himalayas, which is the loftiest mountain system in the world and is geologically young, form the northern limit of India.

There is a wide range of soil and rock types in India. Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are found in different states/UTs of India. As the products of natural environmental weathering processes, soils can be broadly divided into two groups: residual (or in situ) soils and transported soils. The type of soil is determined by numerous factors, including parent rock/material, topography, climate, organisms and time (Sivakugan et al., 2013; Shukla, 2014). Figure 1.4 shows the major soil map of India with soils classified as alluvial, desert, black, mixed red and black, red, grey and black, laterite and mountain soils. Chapters 2–37 present the details of soils and rocks and related aspects focussing on their geological/geotechnical characteristics as observed in the respective Indian state/UT.

Figure 1.4 Major soil map of India (Maps of India, 2021).

1.3 Structure and use of this book

This book presents the geotechnical characteristics of soils and rocks of all the 28 states and 8 UTs of India. There are 37 chapters, including this chapter, in this book, and Chapters 2–37 have been presented according to the alphabetical order of the states and UTs. Each c...