Introduction: The Two-Thousand-Year-Old Assumption
1. âsacrificed their lives protecting studentsâ: See the video and transcript at heam.info/malloy.
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2. by chance or by custom: Tracy and Randles 2011; Ekman and Cordaro 2011; Roseman 2011.
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3. newspaper articles that discuss emotion: From a study by my lab; see heam.info/magazines. emoticons inspired by Darwinâs writings: Sharrock 2013. See also heam.info/facebook-1.
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4. through âemotion analyticsâ: See references at heam.info/analytics-1. âteam chemistryâ from facial expressions: ESPN 2014. See also heam.info/bucks. training on the classical view: Until recently, the FBI National Academy offered a training course based on Paul Ekmanâs research.
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5. a product of human agreement: Searle 1995.
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6. cost taxpayers $900 million: Government Accountability Office 2013. SPOTâs reincarnation, called HIDE (Hostile Intent Detection and Evaluation), may be consistent with newer evidence; see heam.info/spot-1.
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7. men . . . with fatal consequences: This differential treatment persists even when physicians are told that women are at high risk of a heart attack (Martin et al. 1998; Martin et al. 2004).
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8. and hundreds of coalition forces: Triandis 1994, 29.
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1. The Search for Emotionâs âFingerprintsâ
1. they feel anxious: Higgins 1987.
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2. I described as emotional granularity: The discovery of emotional granularity inspired a new domain of emotion research; see heam.info/granularity-1.
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3. part of universal human nature: This book has had tremendous influence in psychology; see heam.info/darwin-1.
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4. small muscles on each side: Tassinary et al. 2007.
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5. sadness, and happiness: Ekman et al. 1969; Izard 1971; Tomkins and McCarter 1964.
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6. that best matches the face: E.g., Ekman et al. 1969; Izard 1971. face best matches the story: E.g., Ekman and Friesen 1971. This is called the âDashiellâ method, after its inventor, the psychologist John Dashiell (1927).
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7. (language) to posed faces: Ekman and Friesen 1971; Ekman et al. 1987. expected emotion words and stories: Ekman et al. 1969; Ekman and Friesen 1971. For an overview of the research program with the Fore of New Guinea, see Russell 1994. such as Japan and Korea: Russell 1994; Elfenbein and Ambady 2002.
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8. diagnostic fingerprints of emotion: âThe strongest evidence for distinguishing one emotion from another comes from research on facial expressions. There is robust, consistent evidence of a universal facial expression for anger, fear, enjoyment, sadness and disgustâ (Ekman 1992, 175â176).
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9. how much, and how often: Tassinary and Cacioppo 1992. each muscle during each emotion: Calculations control for random movements, or movements during a non-emotional comparison period.
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10. pleasant versus unpleasant feeling: Cacioppo et al. 2000.
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11. facial movements as they occur: Ekman and Friesen 1984. FACS was adapted from a method first developed by Swedish anatomist Carl-Herman Hjortsjö in 1969; see heam.info/FACS. consistently match the posed photos: Matsumoto, Keltner, et al. 2008. There are hundreds of published studies on emotional expressions, but this research was able to report only twenty-five studies where spontaneous facial movements were measured. Only half of those using FACS coding found that these movements matched the expected configurations, whereas all of those using a more relaxed version of FACS found a match. All found evidence supporting the claim that people make spontaneous facial movements during emotion matching the expected facial expressions. See heam.info/FACS.
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12. learn rules of social appropriateness: The classical view calls them âdisplay rulesâ (Matsumoto, Yoo, et al. 2008). the two situations was indistinguishable: Camras et al. 2007. The FACS method in this study was specially designed for babies (Oster 2006). For more on infant emotions, see heam.info/infants-2. seeing facial movements at all: Babies show cultural differences as well; see heam.info/camras-1.
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13. to offending smells and tastes: Their facial movements have also been linked to non-emotional factors such as gaze direction, head position, and respiration (Oster 2005). from the basic emotion method: See heam.info/newborns-1. Nor do infants have distinctive cries for each emotion; see heam.info/newborns-2.
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14. disgust rather than anger: Aviezer et al. 2008.
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15. asked actors to portray them: Silvan S. Tomkins and Robert McCarter (1964) created the photos by drawing on earlier photos taken by the French neurologist Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne, who was cited in Darwin ([1872] 2005); see also Widen and Russell 2013.
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16. emotion expertsâaccomplished actors: This work was conducted by my former graduate student and now postdoctoral fellow Maria Gendron. to match written scenarios: Schatz and Ornstein 2006.
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17. her brow is slightly knitted: Sadly, Ms. Leoâs publicist declined my request to reproduce this instructive photograph.
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18. to improve your peripheral vision: Susskind et al. 2008.
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19. instruments of social communication: Fridlund 1991; FernĂĄndez-Dols and Ruiz-Belda 1995. the same each time: Barrett 2011b; Barrett et al. 2011. has a diagnostic facial expression: For evidence on whether non-human primates are similar to humans in their expressions, see heam.info/primates-1. For evidence on whether people blind since birth make facial expressions, see heam.info/blind-2.
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20. the journal Science in 1983: Ekman et al. 1983. in the autonomic nervous system: The autonomic nervous system controls the bodyâs internal organs, such as the heart, the lungs, etc. It is part of the peripheral nervous system (in contrast to the brain and spinal cord, which are considered the central nervous system). (a measure of sweat): Also known as an electrodermal response or a galvanic skin response; see heam.info/galvanic-1.
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21. to move particular facial muscles: A second task was used as well; see heam.info/recall-1.
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22. can be evoked this way: Facial muscles may move during emotion perception; see heam.info/faces-2.
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23. surprise, and disgust: Some of these ...