Marian Devotion in the Late Middle Ages

Image and Performance

Andrea-Bianka Znorovszky, Gerhard Jaritz, Andrea-Bianka Znorovszky, Gerhard Jaritz

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2022
• eBook ISBN: 9781000579499
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: World History
• Index: History

By the late Middle Ages, manifestations of Marian devotion had become multifaceted and covered all aspects of religious, private and personal life. Mary becomes a universal presence that accompanies the faithful on pilgrimage, in dreams, as holy visions, and as pictorial representations in church space and domestic interiors. The first part of the volume traces the development of Marian iconography in sculpture, panel paintings, and objects, such as seals, with particular emphasis on Italy, Slovenia and the Hungarian Kingdom. The second section traces the use of Marian devotion in relation to space, be that a country or territory, a monastery or church or personal space, and explores the use of space in shaping new liturgical practices, new Marian feasts and performances, and the bodily performance of ritual objects.

1 Throne of Gold and Dress of Stars On the Meaning of Polychromy in High Medieval Marian Sculpture

Elisabeth Sobieczky

DOI: 10.4324/9781003179054-2

Introduction: Trends in Medieval Polychrome Sculpture

Over the last 50 years, in the field of art technological research into polychrome sculpture of the European early and high Middle Ages, two coexisting trends in material and style have been identified by conservators and scholars alike: the golden style and the lively painted style. The golden style includes sculptures whose overall appearance is predominantly golden, which can be achieved by various techniques. Hence, sculptures fully or partially covered by sheet gold – such as the Essen Madonna¹ or the Hildesheim Madonna² – belong to this group, as well as sculptures with polychromy mainly consisting of gold leaf – such as the Viklau Madonna.³ Also included are sculptures demonstrating techniques for imitating golden surfaces, for instance, silver leaf or tin foil with a yellow glaze on top, or Zwischgold, or even bright yellow orpiment, which has also been used to render a golden appearance.⁴ The lively painted style favours colourful contrasting paints consisting of pigments and dyes with tempera or oil-based media, sometimes enriched by partial applications of metal leaf, well demonstrated by the Montvianeix Madonna.⁵

Previously observed by other scholars on pieces originating from various European regions, for instance, by Brachert (sculpture from Southern Germany and Switzerland), Tangeberg (sculpture from Sweden), Kargère and Rizzo (sculpture from Burgundy and Auvergne), Serck-Dewaide, Mercier and Sanyova (sculpture from Belgium), the two distinct trends have recently been compared and examined by Plahter who also expanded this idea to Norwegian sculpture and altar frontals from the Middle Ages.⁶ The long list of Norwegian objects studied is impressive and it does not contradict at all the division of trend or style into those two groups, to which all pieces can be assigned. But no clear explanation has been given for the preference of such a style in each piece, besides the observation that it manifests a corresponding ‘taste’.⁷ The question remains open why a vivid colour scheme or a golden polychromy was chosen, and therefore it might be asked whether there are reasons other than ‘taste’ which result in the trends observed, and which have an impact on the appearance of the polychromy of high medieval sculpture. A look at polychrome sculptures throughout history shows a recurrent shifting between more or less colourful polychromies and even ones that are not colourful at all. These options always coexisted and have been studied with respect to later periods.⁸ Findings suggest that a sculpture’s polychromy is always the product of specific circumstances unique to the respective piece and that it is influenced by many factors, such as its intended function and meaning, which are particularly important. In other words, with respect to polychrome sculpture of the high Middle Ages, it can also be assumed that the pieces’ function and meaning are constituted and conveyed through either a vividly coloured or a golden (or metal) polychromy.

Therefore, this paper focuses on the role of and the relationships among techniques, materials, and colours with respect to the iconography of selected polychrome high medieval Marian sculptures from Italy. Special attention is paid to Sedes Sapientiae sculptures and it will be shown that a wider medieval theology of light will be crucial to the following discussion.

Case Study: The Presbyter Martinus Madonna

The former Camaldolese monastery San Sepolcro e dei Santi Quattro Evangelisti of Borgo Sansepolcro, a small town near Arezzo, Tuscany, once possessed a high medieval, preciously polychromed sculpture of the enthroned Madonna: the so-called Presbyter Martinus Madonna,⁹ preserved since 1887 in the collections of the SMPK Berlin¹⁰. She is particularly known for her well-preserved polychromy from the time of origin¹¹ and her four-line inscription written in white and silver letters on the steps of the throne (Figure 1.1).¹² It mentions that in January 1199 “A D MCLXXXXVIIII MES GENUARI” (line 1) during abbot Peter’s tenure “PE(t)RI AB(b)ATIS TEMPORE” (line 3), a certain priest named Martin created this work “PRESBITERI MARTINI LABORE” (line 4). Abbot Peter has been identified with Peter II., who started his tenure as the first Camaldolese abbot of the monastery of Borgo Sansepolcro, elected by the members of this reforming congregation in late 1198/early 1199, which notably corresponds to the date of the creation of this sculpture.¹³ The Presbyter Martinus Madonna is, therefore, one of the rare examples of high medieval sculpture with the known date and name of its creator.

Figure 1.1 Presbyter Martinus Madonna, 1199. Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst, Inv. 29 – photo: Barbara Herrenkind, Berlin.

The sculpture, which is hollowed out at the back, is made from poplar and each figure is sculpted separately and consists of three parts, as all forearms are inserted and held by dowels.¹⁴ Considering the fact that both figures are in a seated position, their dimensions are over life-size: Mary on the throne measures 190 cm in height; her child measures 78 cm. The figure of Mary is completely flat on the reverse; only the bowed head and the front part of her body, including the forward-reaching arms and the lower part below the thighs, are fully carved, as well as the first pair of columns on each side of the throne. While Mary and, especially, the throne, the steps of which become flatter towards the lower edge, are partly rendered in high relief, the child is carved in the round as a separate figure. He sits in a slight recess in the middle of Mary’s lap and is held in position by a large iron pin (Figure 1.2). By this arrangement, it can be detached easily. These observations on its form, which suggest that this sculpture is intended to be viewed from the front and from below, are supported by a pastoral visit to the Camaldolese monastery of Borgo Sansepolcro in 1629. It describes the imaginem Beatissimae Virginis, ligneam depictam located above the altar of the B. Virginis Conceptionis, where it has been adored for 430 years.¹⁵

Figure 1.2 Presbyter Martinus Madonna, 1199. Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst, Inv. 29. Detail.

Throne of Gold – Light of Wisdom

Dominated by radiant gold, which is visually contrasted and enhanced by an intense deep blue with some silver and red accents, this sculpture must have been impressive not just because of the measurements and the hieratic frontal arrangement but also because of its striking appearance created by polychromy.

Mary is adorned with precious golden and intense, dark blue garments, the shapes of which resemble a monk’s habit. She is sitting solemnly on a silver and golden throne raised on six silver and red steps (all silvery parts are darkened by oxidation), which bear the inscription, and a footstool resting on two small reddish-pink lions. The large hood (cuculla) covering her head and shoulders, the mantle with large openings for the arms, and the long scapular-like robe, which falls below the knees, are completely gilded (gold leaf on white ground) with black decorated borders accompanied by white beading. The black calligraphic decoration along the hems of the mantle and robe seems to be inspired by floral Kufic design, while the decoration of the hood’s hemline, which is repeated on the robe’s belt, displays a diamond pattern.¹⁶ The horizontal lower edges of the hood and the robe are laid correspondingly in evenly flattened tubular folds which allow the red lining to appear. The brightness of the golden garments is visually contrasted by Mary’s deep blue, once partly shiny dress (lapis lazuli with accentuating red glaze paint in the fold’s depth),¹⁷ of which only the sleeves and the lower part beneath her knees are visible. Mary also wears golden shoes, which are decorated with a black pattern consisting of squares and diamonds, framed by white beading.

Her hieratic and solemn presence is accentuated by the elongated face with big wide-open eyes, and by her large hands which are placed in front of her son’s left shoulder and right part of the stomach, thus forming a solid frame to support his bodily appearance. The child, also clothed in golden and shiny, deep blue garments, seems to be placed right in the centre of his mother’s lap, but the position of his head exhibits a very slight deviation from the solemn axis.

In terms of iconography, the sculpture is a medieval modification of the Byzantine Nikopoia type,¹⁸ an image of the blue-clothed Theotokos sitting on an imperial throne decorated with a large cushion and gemstones, as can be seen in the mosaics of the Hagia Sophia.¹⁹ The Nikopoia type was well known in medieval Italy and the European West in general, as proven by many pieces.²⁰ The Presbyter Martinus Madonna differs significantly from the Byzantine model, especially in the type of throne and the colour of the garments.

An important written clue is given by the inscription together with the type of throne, as is well known.²¹ Mary’s silver and golden throne, raised on six steps and graced by two lions, is not comparable to the imperial one of the Byzantine images, but undoubtedly refers to the Old Testament’s description of King Solomon’s Throne of Wisdom consisting of ivory and gold (1 Kings 10:18–20; 2 Chr. 9:17–19). Since medieval times, Mary was associated with the Throne of Wisdom by being the throne of God’s Son, the incarnation of Divine Wisdom and the New Testament’s counterpart to the wise King Solomon.²² The second line of the inscription gives evidence for this very idea, recalling explicitly the Throne of Wisdom: “IN GREMIO MATRIS FULGET SAPIENTIA PATRIS” – which not only serves as the titulus but also as the underlying concept for the technical execution of this sculpture. Partially rendered in high relief, the figure of Mary merges with the throne in this formal and sculptural aspect. Correspondingly, the hieratic, solid, and motionless appearance of Mary emphasises her function as the throne of God’s son, who is sitting on her lap. Stressing once again the idea that the child can be detached easily, whereby Mary’s nicely decorated and knotted belt becomes visible as a sign of incarnation. With reference to the Old Testament’s golden ivory throne of Solomon, gold turns out to be the most important material, as it allows identification with that throne. Significantly, the figure of Mary is characterised by radiant gold, meaning gold as a material, not as a colour. Together with her bright shiny flesh tones (yellowish pink highlighted with white in oily tempera media), this results in an overall radiant appearance as the mother of God. With respect to Homer, who compares the white of her skin with ivory (Od. 18, 196), the specific bright and light-coloured rendering of Mary’s flesh points to this very material, which, therefore, gives another reference to Solomon’s Throne. The prevailing golden appearance of the Presbyter Martinus Madonna clearly distinguishes her from the Byzantine model, which had not assigned any golden garments to the Theotokos by that time.²³

An accumulation of meanings also surrounds the infant Jesus. Identified by the inscription as the Word Made Flesh (John 1:14), his fully carved body particularly underlines this bodily presence. Sitting in front of Mary’s golden garments, he is surrounded by...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures
• List of Contributors
• Preface
• Introduction
• 1 Throne of Gold and Dress of Stars: On the Meaning of Polychromy in High Medieval Marian Sculpture
• 2 Seeing God in the Image of Mary: Cross Readings of a Medieval Benedictine Convent Seal
• 3 Devotion, Gold, and the Virgin: Visualizing Mary in Three Fourteenth-​Century Tuscan Panels in the National Gallery of Denmark
• 4 Diagrammatic Devotion and the Defensorium Mariae in the Funerary Chapel of Hărman Parish Church
• 5 Veil and Signature: Giambono’s Madonna Barberini
• 6 Salve Regina in Late Medieval Dominican Communities
• 7 Developments in Servite Marian Spirituality and the Use of Saint Filippo Benizi in Promoting Servite Miraculous Madonnas
• 8 Mary, Michael, and the Devil. An Eschatological–​Iconographic Perspective on the Liturgical Drama of Philippe de Mézières
• 9 “Mulier amicta sole”: Transformations of a Devotional Image between the Fifteenth and the Sixteenth Centuries
• 10 Mobile Shrine and Magical Bodies: Modern Afterlives of Medieval Shrine Madonnas
• Index