Theories in Social Psychology

Derek Chadee

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2022
• Print ISBN: 9781119627883
• eBook ISBN: 9781119627944
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Social Psychology
• Index: Psychology

THEORIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Theories in Social Psychology develops a deeper, more robust understanding of the theoretical framework underlying the field. Providing rich insights into the central theories and perspectives that continue to shape the discipline, this edited volume brings together a panel of distinguished scholars to address thirteen social psychological theories relating to social cognition, social comparison, social reinforcement, and self. In-depth critical discussions examine topics including cognitive dissonance, reactance, attribution, social comparison, relative deprivation, equity, interdependency, social identity, and more.

The expanded second edition fills a substantial gap in current literature by articulating the important psychological theories rather than placing emphasis on applied research. New and revised content helps students understand the construction and complexity of key theories while inspiring researchers of social behavior to reflect on their current work and consider future areas of investigation. This comprehensive resource:

• Identifies and discusses the theoretical perspectives and specific theories that form the foundation of the study of social psychology
• Features work from leading scholars including Bertram F. Malle, Paul R. Nail, Richard E. Petty, Thomas Mussweiler, Faye J. Crosby, and Miles Hewstone
• Helps students move from introductory concepts to multifaceted theoretical frameworks

Theories in Social Psychology, Second Edition, remains the perfect textbook for academics and students wanting to study and discuss important social psychological perspectives and theories and attain a deeper understanding of the theoretical framework.

"This book will be a very valuable tool for students and professionals alike who wish to learn theories in social psychology and the role they have played in the development of the discipline. It is comprehensive in its coverage and covers the theories in an objective and engaging way."
—Robert J. Sternberg, Professor, Department of Psychology, College of Human Ecology, Cornell University, Honorary Professor of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, Germany

"In this wonderful new edition of compilation of theories, at the core of modern social psychology, presented to us by Derek Chadee, we are given a special gift that enriches scholars, teachers and students of psychology in social and general psychology. We are treated to a clear exposition of these theories some of the research and controversy that each has generated, and are given some guidelines to new paths for future exploration of their implications. My research career has benefitted from working in the domains of dissonance, attribution, and social comparison theories, but my teaching and textbook writing has relied on all of the theories and their concepts so elegantly orchestrated here."
—Phillip G. Zimbardo, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, Stanford University

Section 1
Social Cognition

1
Theorizing Social Psychology

Social psychology is relevant today as much as it was over a hundred years ago. But academics would argue that the impetus, and at the core, of any discipline is its theoretical foundation. The genesis to the maturity of social psychology from the early twentieth century to the second decade of the twenty-first century has seen the creation and development of numerous theories intended to conceptualize spheres of reality that were somewhat outside of the range of sociology or general psychology. Many of these theories still meaningfully contribute toward the research and theoretical expansion of the discipline.

Gordon Allport (1968) defined social psychology as “an attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others.” As limited as definitions are, this definition of social psychology captured the dynamism, focus, and direction of the discipline. Important to an understanding of social psychological behavior is taking into consideration not only what is happening socially to the person but also what is occurring internally, including cognitively, to the individual, which, in turn, affects social behavior. From its genesis rooted in the work of William James’s Principles of Psychology to current development of the discipline, there has always been an emphasis on the individual within the social interaction paradigm. Theorization, therefore, in the discipline has fallen within this paradigm, which is now extended to include the neurological functioning of human beings within the social psychological context.

The early works on social psychology by the psychologist William McDougall (1908) and the sociologist Edward Ross (1908) weighted social behavior on instinctual or social factors, respectively. Later, Floyd Allport (1924) emphasized a behaviorist stimulus–response paradigm for the understanding of social psychological behavior. Theories of psychology and sociology during this early period seem to have been competing to understand a realm that had neither the theorization nor the research sophistication to claim discovery status. Much of the work undertaken in social psychology has been done within the discipline of psychology, with sociological social psychology contributions being relatively sparse. Notably, the discipline of sociology has contributed tremendously to the early development of the concept and theorization of self, especially via theories of symbolic interactionism, phenomenology, and, later, ethnomethodology. On the other hand, psychological social psychology’s contributions have been crucial to the genesis and development of both the pure and applied branches of the discipline.

Theories often articulate constructs, hypothetical concepts, that allow us to understand phenomena that otherwise would have been impossible to appreciate (see Morgeson & Hofmann, 1999). The human mind in no way can comprehend the complexities of reality. But the assumptions, constructs, concepts, abstractions, hypotheses and propositions within a theory provide a structure to explain dimensions of reality. As the synthesized relationship between a theory and research develops, we gain further understanding into the obscurity of reality. The theory is, then, strengthened with the continuous applications and rigors of scientific testing. The predictive power is often the boast of a good theory. But Waltz (1997, p. 913) cautioned that: “the explanation, not the prediction is the ultimate criterion of a good theory … a theory can be validated only by working back and forth between its implications and an uncertain state of affairs that we take to be the reality against which theory is tested, and that the results of tests are always problematic”.

As Kuhn (1996) has suggested, theory, and by extension knowledge, develops within paradigms. The theories discussed in this volume are evolving within paradigms and contributing to the growth of scientific knowledge. As Kuhn states, a paradigm is “universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of researchers” (1996, p. x). The anomalous research results, vis-à-vis consistent expanding frontiers, derived from testing of theories presented in this volume have not, thus far, created any threats towards a paradigm shift away from the current paradigms under which these theories operate. Theories demonstrate the normal scientific adventure of the movement from pre-paradigm to normal science to revolutionary changes and finally the formation of a new paradigm. Anomalous findings and loss of confidence push resources from one paradigm into a new and emerging paradigm leading to the development and rise of new theorization (Kuhn, 1996).

Many theories are constructed to be tested. But other theories, because of unmeasurable constructs and concepts, are difficult to be evaluated in the Popperian sense of falsification (Popper, 1965). Though falsification is important in the development of scientific theorization it should not be the main criterion for the acceptance or non-acceptance of paradigms. As the famous ship analogy suggests: If you are on a sinking ship with many holes, would you immediately jump into the ocean, or would you wait for another ship to come along? As a critique of falsification, non-confirmation of theories during research does not mean that you should discard the theory and much more, the paradigm within which the theory operates. Rather the output, utility and explanatory power of the theory and paradigm are what sustain the continuance of many theories. But many theories still continue to exert the academic and applied influence even having been exhaustively criticized. Some of the theories presented in this volume are cases in point. Waltz (1997, p. 914) puts it this way, “In contrast, Lakatos observes that “the most admired scientific theories simply fail to forbid any observable state of affairs” (Lakatos, 1970, p. 100). This is true for many reasons. Lakatos himself points out that we always evaluate theories with a ceteris paribus clause implied, and we can never be sure that it holds.” Many social psychological theories are open theories. Popper (1982) argued that open theories expose their propositions, assumptions and hypotheses to constant evaluation, assessment of logical consistency and testing of validity – a process of falsification. A falsification process allows for the continual growth of a theory, and by extension, science.

Social psychology has seen numerous studies testing hypotheses drawn from theories. However, less frequent in the literature is the emergence of theories – a renaissance that is much needed for the development and impetus of the discipline. However, many of the theories that currently exist within social psychology are as important to the discipline as they were over seventy years ago. A renaissance starts with a reassessment of the efficacy of current theories.

Theories have the power of insight and understanding, allowing scientists to see phenomena that previously they would have been unable to conceptualize. Albert Einstein is quoted as saying, “Whether or not you can observe a thing depends on the theory you use. It is the theory which decides what can be observed.” Waltz (1997, p. 913) has given another spin to theorization noting that reality is assembled in the human mind and “the recognition of structures is nothing else than the selective destruction of information”. But what in a theory pushes to, on the one hand, the destruction of information, the blinding of vision, and at the same time allowing us to conceptualize and recognize structures? The construction of theories starts from the limitation of the human mind to discover and understand events, facts, inconsistencies and attempts to discern reality utilizing a systematic process. The epistemological position we adopt allows us to grasp at miniscule aspects of reality. Often, latent within a theory is an epistemological standpoint, whether that be positivism, relativism, realism, constructivism, feminism, existentialism or some other epistemological standpoint. The assumptions, propositions, hypotheses, and supporting confirmed “facts” all provide the theory with a power of vision. The assumptions are givens that the theorist is allowed to utilize in the construction of his theory. They are like the basic tools of a carpenter, in this case the theorist. These assumptions are grounded on some philosophy or principle and are often not the bases on which a theory is criticized. However, assumptions give a theory direction. On the other hand, a theory’s power of vision is myopic, limited by the same tools that give the theory its power. This is a dilemma that the finite scientist must explore in any discipline. However, the beach-ball approach to the understanding of the world within one’s discipline is a compromise accepted by social psychologists. That is, it is recognized that a theory is an academic creation, in this sense, and has limitations. The adoption of a number of theoretical positions provides a more comprehensive understanding of the multidimensional nature of a ph...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Acknowledgement
• Section 1 – Social Cognition
• Section 2 – Social Comparison
• Section 3 – Social Reinforcement
• Section 4 – Self
• Contributors
• Index
• End User License Agreement