Introduction
The unprecedented increase in linguistic diversity and multilingualism in educational settings worldwide calls for a shift in teacher education toward preparing teachers to meet the needs of multilingual learners (e.g., Alisaari, et al., 2019; GarcĂa & Kleyn, 2016). In the rapidly changing world of the 21st century, English language teachers in different contexts find themselves working with learners from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, and many young language learners are developing competence in English as a third or fourth language. These young multilingual learners (YMLs) need teachers who have expertise in grade-level content and language awareness. Language awareness includes the ability to think linguistically (i.e., to recognize that YMLs have specific linguistic needs) (Bailey, et al., 2007), and the ability to support YMLs in using all of their existing linguistic resources to develop content knowledge and language competence in English. These qualities make English language teachers important agents of a paradigm shift to the use of multilingual pedagogies (Jessner, 2008).
Before we move on further in our discussion, we should introduce and clarify some basic terminology as it will be used in this chapter. There is no existing uniform definition of the term multilingualism among scholars. There are some authors and scholars who have attempted to differentiate between multilingualism at a societal level and individual multilingualism, which is sometimes termed plurilingualism (e.g., Council of Europe, 2018; King, 2017; Piccardo, 2019). In this chapter, we use the terms multilingual and multilingualism to refer to the knowledge and use of, to varying degrees, two or more languages by individuals or societies.
With global migration at an all-time high, it is understandable that teachers of English learners in educational systems in BANA countries (Britain, Australasia, and North America) would have experienced increases in the number of YMLs in their classes. However, there are other countries that accept large numbers of immigrants, such as Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. In these countries, English is taught in schools from a young age, and in recent years, English teachers have experienced increases in the number of multilingual learners in their classes (students for whom English is likely a third, fourth, or additional language). Teaching these students is a complex endeavor because YMLs vary greatly in terms of their linguistic and cultural backgrounds, their levels of language proficiency, and their experiences with literacy and school, as well as their home and family situations. Consider the following English learner profiles for one third-grade classroom in Norway.
- Profile 1. Roberto, age nine, speaks Spanish and Portuguese at home as these two languages are the first languages (L1s) of his parents. He is learning English in school. During Kindergarten and first and second grades in Brazil, he used Portuguese, so he can read and write in Portuguese quite well for his age. His mom has also helped him learn to read in Spanish. He is the oldest of three children and the first to attend school. His parents are both literate in two languages. The family arrived in Norway very recently, and Roberto understands very little English or Norwegian.
- Profile 2. Raul Zaid is nine years old. He speaks mostly Arabic at home as it is the L1 for his parents; however, Kurdish is also used by his parents and members of his extended family, so he can understand a substantial amount of Kurdish. He can read and write in Arabic, but his literacy skills are not strong as his schooling has been interrupted several times. His family has resided in Norway for one year, and Raulâs skills in Norwegian are developing fast. However, his English skills are minimal.
- Profiles 3 and 4. Ayaan is aged nine, and Bishaaro is aged 10. They are sisters. Both girls speak Arabic and Somali at home, and they are literate in both languages. Because they are newcomers, they have no knowledge of English or Norwegian and are having difficulty adjusting to the new school environment. For this reason, Bishaaro has been placed in Grade 3 with her sister instead of Grade 4, which is the grade level for students who are 10 years old.
These four YMLs speak a total of six different languages and have had different experiences with schooling and literacy. The classroom in which these four multilingual learners reside has a total of 21 students. In addition to meeting the content and language needs of the four YMLs described in the profiles earlier, the teacher in this Grade 3 classroom must also meet the learning needs of the 11 children who are home language (L1) speakers of Norwegian with no other languages in their repertoires and five emergent multilinguals, two with Swedish as their home language who are learning Norwegian and English and three Norwegian children who already speak other languages (e.g., German and Danish) and are learning English in school. Preparing teachers to assume instructional responsibilities in such diverse contexts with YMLs is a complex endeavor. English teachers must not only acquire expertise in grade-level content, but they must also have sufficient metalinguistic knowledge to help language learners develop their English language skills by drawing on individual linguistic repertoires and encouraging multilingualism (Anderson, 2002; Tedick & Cammarata, 2012). However, preparing teachers for the increasingly multilingual realities of their classrooms is a demanding undertaking. The pedagogical practices that teachers choose to enact in their classrooms are strongly affected by their own learning experiences (Lortie, 1975; VĂ©lez-RendĂłn, 2002), dominant language ideologies (Barcelos, 2003; Fitch, 2003), and their beliefs about learning and teaching (Borg, 2006; Phipps & Borg, 2009). In order for teachers to implement culturally and linguistically responsive pedagogies, they first need to embrace language ideologies and hold beliefs that are supportive of multilingual practices.
In this chapter, we present the Multilingual Approach to Diversity in Education (MADE) (Christison, et al., 2021), which is an instructional framework and a set of principles that are grounded in current research on both language and content integration and multilingualism. It is intended as a tool to support teachers of multilingual learners in enacting the multilingual turn in education (May, 2014, 2019). We describe and substantiate each of the MADE indicators with supporting research and then illustrate how the model is being used to deliver a graduate-level course for Norwegian student teachers of English as an Additional Language (EAL) who work with YMLs. The student teachers experience the model via loop input; namely, they are taught in the way they are expected to teach (Woodward, 2003). MADE offers an opportunity to promote pedagogical practices that not only acknowledge the value of multilingualism but also support teachers in helping YMLs meet grade-level content and language goals.
Conceptual Framework for the Course
The Integration of Content and Language
English language teaching programs that integrate language and content are used in primary, secondary, and tertiary school contexts in all parts of the globe. The terms content-based instruction (CBI), content-based language teaching (CBLT), and content and language integrated learning (CLIL) are broad descriptors of an approach to teaching a target language in which there are goals for teaching content, most often academic content (Mohan, 1986), and language.
Even though there are many affordances for learners as a result of integrating language and content, many second and foreign language teachers find this approach âdifficult to conceptualize, design, and implementâ (Donato, 2016, p. 25). Integrating both academic content and language development in a single lesson is a challenging task and often requires that âteachers [re-define] their identities as they assume new roles and responsibilitiesâ (Krulatz, 2019, p. 10). Many English teachers also worry about their own level of language proficiency. Teachers believe that if they have limited proficiency in the language of instruction, they can compromise their learnersâ abilities to master academic content concepts. It is understandable that teachers who worry about their proficiency in the target language might feel intimidated when they are required to use it to teach content (Tedick & Cammarata, 2012). Finding the right balance between the amount of time that should be devoted to content or language is another challenge (Lyster, 2007). Student teachers can benefit from preservice courses that can help them address these challenges.
The Multilingual Turn
Recently, we have begun to see a shift in ideologies among researchers in the field of second language acquisition and English language teaching professionals. This change can be characterized as a move away from a monolingual perspective in English language education (Ortega, 2019), with its focus on the separation of languages, to a multilingual perspective, which considers the potential value of using the multiple languages learners already know to gain subject matter content knowledge. This softening of boundaries among languages in instructional contexts (Blommaert, 2010; Cenoz & Gorter, 2013) has reshaped thinking about multilingualism and created what May (2014, 2019) and Conteh and Meier (2014) have referred to as the multilingual turn in English language education. Both researchers and practitioners recognize the complex and dynamic nature of multilingual language development and the importance of bringing learnersâ full linguistic resources to the task of creating linguistically and culturally responsive teaching (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Lucas & Villegas, 2011). Such an approach to language development in classes with YMLs (a) provides opportunities to use their diverse linguistic repertoires to learn grade-level content, (b) promotes and strengthens their identities as multilinguals, and (c) reaffirms the importance of their backgrounds and experiences in the current educational context.
Research studies on teacher cognition report that teachers continue to display attitudes that reflect monolingual rather than multilingual ideologies (De Angelis, 2011; RodrĂguez-Izquierdo et al., 2020). This finding has led researchers and second language teacher educators to seek changes in teacher education programs so that teachers not only develop pedagogical skills for working with YMLs but also gain knowledge about multilingualism, metalinguistic awareness, sensitivity to learner differences, and strategies for home/school collaborations.
To enact the multilingual turn in English language teaching contexts with YMLs, teachers need to become agents of change. To do so, teachers need to hold positive attitudes about multilingualism and multilingual learners even if they are not multilingual themselves. Teachersâ personal beliefs are based on and embedded in their own learning experiences (VĂ©lez-RendĂłn, 2002). These beliefs and experiences are referred to by Lortie (1975) as the apprenticeship of observation, and they are not easily changed. To counteract the powerful mental models that teachers bring with them to the task of teaching, teacher educators need to model the instructional techniques ...
