1 Introduction challenges and opportunities regarding migration in the North
Nafisa Yeasmin, Satu Uusiautti and Timo Koivurova
DOI: 10.4324/9781003185024-2
(Im)migration in the north is not a new phenomenon but indeed an unexplored area of research and development. The Arctic region is facing new problems and challenges alongside the already existing ones of Arctic migration. For example, refugees are a growing group of inhabitants in the Arctic. Cultural differences, the acceptance of foreign citizens in the local communities, integration into local communities and labour markets are some of the issues that need cross-border cooperation to contribute to innovative solutions.
There are some disparities between policies and the practical implementation of those policies regarding immigrants or refugees. Socio-economic integration is a complex phenomenon. The subjective happiness of immigrants and the degrees of being satisfied vary from immigrant to immigrant and from city to city.
The book will investigate whether there are regional differences in happiness among immigrants in the Arctic countries that would support or strengthen the Nordic synergies and identity. The project will identify the degrees of satisfaction of immigrants and whether the impact of effective integration is similar across the Nordic cities. How is the happiness of immigrants distributed among the Arctic cities, and is the quality of life similar in the Arctic countries? How can we build integrated societies, what could be the model, tools and measures for an inclusive society and for being resilient?
The Future of the Arctic Human Population: Migration in the North introduces multidisciplinary research on the phenomenon of Arctic migration. The purpose is to give voice to a variety of people: How do immigrants aiming to enter the northern labour markets perceive their chances? What about the migration of women, indigenous people, higher education students, or children and their parents? This book comprises four parts that each highlights a specific viewpoint to migration in the North.
Part II: immigrants and labour market
Part II focuses on immigrants and the labour markets in the North. This theme is highly relevant because of the divergent regional population and economic development in the North. It has been discussed recently, for example, in Finland that there is a real need to recruit more labour from abroad already now and in the future to prevent the shortage of labour caused by population ageing. It is also known that there is high competition between countries to attract skilled labour to fulfil the gap in labour markets.
The key question is how immigrants have integrated into the labour markets in the North. Are there variations when employment is analysed by different background variables, such as employment sector, gender, education, country of birth and, for example, by cyclical fluctuations in the economy? Is there a regional variation in the employment of immigrants and which regions are attracting more immigrants to the labour markets, i.e. which regions are gainers and which losers in the North?
Part II includes two chapters.
Elli HeikkilÀ, Sari Vanhanen and Saara Linnatsalo emphasize the importance of functional labour markets where immigrants are an essential part with a special focus on immigrant youth who are under a risk of marginalization in Finland. The authors focus on language skills as the factor for successful integration, since the lack of Finnish language skills is a significant impediment to getting access to the labour market. The authors studied whether it is possible to combine language learning and learning at work in order to enhance labour market integration.
The authors conclude that fluent language skills that are required to enter the labour market are used as an excuse not to hire employees with an immigrant background. Though language skills are related to both work ability and employment opportunity, all work tasks do not require fluent language skills. They argue that immigrants need labour market inclusion based on their diligence, cultural knowledge, motivations, strong worth ethics and commitment rather than language skills.
Nafisa Yeasmin and Elli HeikkilÀ accentuate labour market policies which they argue to be modified based on the diverse needs of heterogeneous immigrant groups. The existing policies do not meet the diverse needs now. They argue that policies and measures need to be utilized in order for immigrants to benefit more. They studied and conclude, as an example, that perhaps three specific groups of dependent, interdependent and independent immigrants could help understand the diverse needs of unemployed and underemployed immigrants. The research suggests group-specific integration measures to enhance labour market integration.
Part III: gender and migration in the Arctic
Migration and gender issues are inextricably linked and complex. The relationship between a migrantâs gender and sexual identity/orientation and other identity dimensions (ethnicity, education, class, religion, power and place) shapes every stage of the migration experience, from their country of origin to their destination country, or in transit. These intersectional issues influence why, where and to whom they migrate. They also affect a migrantâs citizenship entitlement and access to services, as well as coping mechanisms in response to risks and vulnerabilities. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how gender interacts with migration in the Arctic in order to develop appropriate policies and practices.
This part focuses broadly on the gender-migration nexus throughout the circumpolar North. Topics include access to and control over resources and services, political participation, livelihood security, material and cultural well-being, education and youth out-migration, socio-demographic processes, and ethnicity and indigeneity from a gender-migration viewpoint.
Part III includes three chapters.
The work of Lara W. Hoffmann, Stéphanie Barillé and Markus Meckl focuses on gender equality in Iceland. The research-based on qualitative and quantitative data explores sets of values and norms among host and migrant populations. Research argues that migrant women who are vulnerable in the labour market and are facing cultural challenges need to be included in the equality discourse in Iceland. The research explores that many factors need to be accommodated to fulfil the gender gap. More educational opportunities and access to information are needed. Research findings manifested not only patriarchal limitations but also some other impediments that hinder the economic integration of migrant women, for example, inadequate jobs, language barriers, etc. Migrant women need proper knowledge of the Icelandic society as well as the experiences of Icelandic women since the results show a big gap in gender equality between Icelandic and migrant women.
Nafisa Yeasmin and Timo Koivurova interviewed immigrant women in the Finnish part of Lapland. The results show that immigrant women are motivated by three factors to establish a business in a sparsely populated region like Lapland where there is a higher unemployment rate among immigrant women than immigrant men. The result of their empirical analysis and literature review helped them to conclude with three hypotheses that explained the immigrant womenâs motivation and abilities to establish a business in Lapland⊠The findings are threefold. A tendency to be self-employed comes from (1) a disadvantageous position i.e. fewer jobs opportunities, lack of jobs based on educational background and the attitudes of employer) in the host labour market, (2) a need for social affiliation manifests an essential inadequacy in conformity by the locals. (3) Respective ethnic sets of values and recognition of own-selves are the determinants for establishing a business.
Pigga Keskitaloâs chapter is focused on the indigenous SĂĄmi people, living in Finland, Norway, Sweden and Russia. (Im)migration among SĂĄmi women is a less studied phenomenon, especially their experiences and reasons for migration. The SĂĄmi people move to suburban areas away from the SĂĄmi homeland, and moving abroad within the Arctic SĂĄmi area represents a bypassed migration experience. Keskitalo discusses questions such as why internal and cross-border migration takes place among SĂĄmi women, how they have experienced this and what kinds of future perspectives appear in their stories. The chapter brings new knowledge about indigenous peopleâs migration and highlights interesting questions about identity and SĂĄmi culture and language in the Arctic cross-border migration.
Part IV: local languages, education: integration of adult and youth
Acquiring the local language is generally portrayed as a central aspect of the integration of immigrants as it facilitates the social and economic entry into the host society. This part discusses language learning among immigrants, satisfaction with language courses and the expectations by the host country towards immigrants. Part IV includes three chapters.
Nafisa Yeasmin and Satu Uusiautti talk about adjusting parenting which has an impact on the perception of well-being. According to them, good parenting of immigrant parents depends on successful integration, which has its influence on immigrant childrenâs well-being as well. However, their comparative study between the Arctic city, which is less diverse, and a superdiverse city of Singapore explores that good integration of parents can cause positive experiences and have an impact on both parents and their childrenâs well-being. The authors utilize the PERMA theory that can encompass or eliminate successful support for a sense of pride and fulfilment that increases parentsâ confidence. Parental confidence and parental support are contextual in differ in diverse and superdiverse contexts.
ZĂŒbeyde Durna, Satu Uusiautti and Kaarina MÀÀttĂ€ analyse international students as the potential group of immigrants to the labour market in Finland. They argue that the international studentsâ resilience building in higher education is a new field of research. Social well-being of international students is an important factor for integrating in the host community and in the higher educational institution it has been researched previously. But in this research, findings showed that the seven elements of resilience measured through the studies are (1) living authentically; (2) finding your calling; (3) maintaining perspective; (4) managing stress; (15) interacting cooperatively; (6) building networks; and (7) staying healthy. The results show that international students are resilient, but do not directly predict their willingness to immigrate to Finland after graduation. Internationalization requires understanding the cultural capital of diverse people who are residing in a similar society. Any welcoming society knows how and why to value international students since international students are potential immigrants who can contribute to the socio-economic development of the host society. Therefore, the authors argue that a higher educational institution should identify the hardships of international students in terms of better integration. Better policies aimed at accelerating the resilience of this group of immigrants is one of the priority areas, and universities and the government of the respective country could take advantage of quality immigration and diversity.
Ayonghe Akonwi and Nafisa Yeasmin uncover the impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19) on the work-life of immigrant youths and strategic responses using empirical data from interviews and focus groups among institutions in Finland. According to the result, the Covid crisis causes confusion and uncertainty among the youth. Social isolation during distance learning and at home without jobs causes an inattention that has changed their day-to-day routines. Young immigrants who have been under the risk of marginalization before the Covid-19 pandemic become more vulnerable. The stressors could jeopardize both physical and mental well-being of immigrant youth. Researchers emphasize that crisis intervention and management is needed for understanding the scope of ambiguities in order to strategize the righteous proposes that need to be given attention to further managing the vulnerabilities. Many immigrant youth have faced difficulties in renewing their work/residency permits as a result of losing their jobs which shows a growing risk of welfare chauvinism. Research argues that policy intervention can be effective if it is only based on phenomenological and subjective aspects.
Part V: outward migration from the Arctic
The Arctic is sparsely populated and many Arctic regions face demographic challenges. This problem is worsened by the large number of people from the Arctic who leave their home regions in search of opportunities, for example, for education and work outside the Arctic. Outward migration from rural to urban regions is a challenge elsewhere, too, as is the problem that the consequential decrease in population density will lead to a loss of services available in rural regions. This, in turn, makes remote regions less attractive places of residence. This can lead to a chain reaction that can put sustainable development and, in some cases, the entire existence of small Arctic communities at risk. This part looks at the challenges following outward migration and potential solutions from the practical perspective of the people who live in the Arctic. Part V includes three chapters.
Marika Kettunen paid attention to youth outmigration which is a topical research issue for the Arctic region, since the northernmost cities and suburbs are fading for not having human resources. Recently, youth are migrating from the region for having better opportunities. However, regional sustainability very much depends on human resources. The author discussed a bottom-up perspective on outmigration by interviewing 23 youths in the region. Understanding the views of Youth and their experiences is needed in policy development of the region in the context of rural depopulation. Not only educational shortcomings matter, but the youth also appreciate other elements, for example, leisure time activities, and cultural or sports facilities, for having a quality life. The decision to stay or leave âhere or thereâ depends on many of these above-mentioned factors that the northern cities are lacking. Certain shortcomings create disengagement and limit the scope of future aspirations. The research indeed expresses that the youth has a strong sense of belongingness with the home region. Nature, the seasonal beauty of their homeland discourages them to move from the region. Emotional attachment with the hometown pushes some youth to stay in the region, but some of them perceive mobility as the alternative option to have a meaningful future and prospects. The author suggests the voices and experiences of Youth be heard for sustainable development of the region in order to consider structural opportunities that can ensure the well-being of the youth by offering meaningful paths and ways of quality life.
Nafisa Yeasmin and Pavel Tkach have a theoretical approach to conformal migration when discussing the complicated process of integration in the Arctic. Authors defined stresses that can emerge during the migration processes and how conformity of a host society could either assist or hinder the integration process within the arctic societies. The results of the empirical research are opposite from each other in two different cities in the Northern part of Finland and Russia. However, in both cases, it is obvious that societal features of the host have an impact on immigrantsâ motivation and behavioural shift towards successful integration. If immigrants canât be accepted by the host society, then behavioural shifts automatically turn towards the negative direction and cause a withdrawal towards acculturation. A sense of belongingness is significant for integration into a new society.
The research of Harun GĂŒmrĂŒkcĂŒ Antalya and Seda Soylu Zeynep analyse the labour market effects on integration in Spitzbergen/Svalbard. The effects of climate change and urbanization on mobility have been discussed in the study. The study focuses on Three-Sector Theory to evaluate the areas of employment in such an Archipelago. The dramatic changes in climate induce an economic perspective on immigration policies in Svalbard. The authors argue that population and employment growth of the Archipelago require net migration. The region is unattractive because of extreme weather and long, dark polar winters and moreover, the pandemic causes disruptions in communication networks and collapse supply chains, adversely affecting the employment situation of the local immigrants, since immigrants are not assured by unemployment insurance services. The legal and controversial sovereign power of this Archipelago causes hindrances in the economic integration process. There is a need for active social policies in order to fill the structural gaps to accelera...
