1.1 What is Sport Psychology?
It appears that in recent years, the field of sport psychology has witnessed a surge of interest and activity, despite its struggle for acceptance as a scientific field (Wylleman & Liukonnen, 2003). While this recognition is a step forward in the development of sport psychology, a consequence of this exponential expansion has been ambiguity as to what constitutes the boundaries of sport psychology given that no uniformly used formal definition of sport psychology exists (Portenga, Aoyagi, & Cohen, 2017; Rejeski & Brawley, 1988; Wylleman, Harwood, Elbe, Reints, & de Caluwé, 2009). Indeed, as the sport context presents a unique performance environment that can encompass clinical psychology, performance psychology, organisational psychology, mental skills, counselling, motor learning, and assessment, the domain of sport psychology may truly be such an interdisciplinary field that it is impossible to provide a universal definition (Winter & Collins, 2016).
In acknowledgement of the broad nature of sport psychology, the literature suggests that professionals can learn from clinical and counselling psychology given the similarities in, for example, service delivery such as applying specialised training, skills, and knowledge (McEwan & Tod, 2015). This is where identifying a clear definition of sport psychology falls short as the field becomes encumbered by the many overlapping commonalities from other disciplines within psychology. As sport psychology can be identified as a subset of sport science and psychology (Stelter, 2005), it has been observed that any psychological work which involves athletes is automatically assumed to be sport psychology by both public clientele and professional practitioners (Aoyagi & Portenga, 2010). Furthermore, the umbrella term sport psychology tends to be defined in relation to the academic discipline where the focus is on what sport psychologists research, rather than the unique aspects of what they do (Winter & Collins, 2015). While the emphasis on practising or “doing” sport psychology in relation to the unique interventions, techniques, and professional literature that make the field distinct from other psychological disciplines has been repeatedly highlighted in the extant literature (e.g., Aoyagi & Portenga, 2010; Dishman, 1983; Portenga et al., 2017), the domain of sport psychology continues to be defined by each researcher, author, and practitioner, based on their own experiences and biases (Lesyk, 2005).
To circumvent these vague definitions that appear to be impractical and misleading in relation to the practice and profession of sport psychology, a working definition of sport and performance psychology was recommended by Portenga et al. (2017) in the hopes of promoting more congruity between knowledge and practice, not just for consumers, but researchers and practitioners alike. Given the core application of sport psychology has revolved around performance excellence in the context of competitive sport, it seemed appropriate to conceptualise sport psychology within the field of performance psychology (Hays, 2006). In this regard, Portenga et al. (2017) proposed the following definition of performance psychology:
Performance psychology is the study and application of psychological principles of human performance to help people consistently perform in the upper range of their capabilities and more thoroughly enjoy the performance process. Performance psychology practitioners are uniquely trained and specialised to engage in a broad range of activities, including the identification, development, and execution of the mental and emotional knowledge, skills, and abilities required for excellence in performance domains; the understanding, assessment, and managing of the psychological, cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and psychophysiological inhibitors of consistent, excellent performance; and the improvement of performance environments to facilitate more efficient development, consistent execution, and positive experiences in performers.
(p. 52)
And the following definition of applied sport psychology:
The application of psychological principles of human performance in helping athletes consistently perform in the upper range of their capabilities and more thoroughly enjoy the sport performance process. Sport psychology practitioners are uniquely trained and specialised to engage in a broad range of activities including the identification, development, and execution of the mental and emotional knowledge, skills, and abilities required for excellence in athletic domains; the understanding, assessment, and managing of the psychological, cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and psychophysiological inhibitors of consistent, excellent performance; and the improvement of athletic contexts to facilitate more efficient development, consistent execution, and positive experiences in athletes.
(p. 52)
In acknowledging the broad interdisciplinary field of sport psychology, it is important to note that though the emphasis here is on the practice and scholarship of sport and performance psychology, this by no means is intended to diminish the other areas of research within this discipline. Rather, its purpose is to provide a consistent understanding of applied practice and consequently the associated research within this context. In a similar way to how Portenga et al. (2017) suggest that competent and effective practice occurs when practitioners are equipped with a clear professional philosophy and theoretical orientation, so too should the researchers who wish to study applied sport psychology (Spruill et al., 2004).
1.2 Role(s), Responsibilities, and Competency
One prime explanation that captures the breath of sport psychology was depicted by Martens (1987), where sport psychology operates along a continuum ranging from individuals suffering from mental illness (abnormal) to those striving to unlock their fullest potential (super-normal). Although applied sport psychology may traditionally involve the application of performance psychology principles to help athletes reach their potential in a sporting environment, sport psychologists have often found themselves confronted with general well-being issues beyond the scope of performance psychology (Portenga et al., 2017). However, while there may be similarities in the theories which inform practice, the goals, purposes, and contexts by which these psychological interventions are carried out distinguish sport psychology from other psychological practices (e.g., exercise and health psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, positive psychology, and consulting psychology).
In this sense, under the overarching term of performance psychology, sport psychologists are in a position to both facilitate high performance through standard mental skills such as goal-setting, relaxation, and imagery, or address more clinical issues which impair performance like mental health disorders and identity (Peterson, Brown, McCann, & Murphy, 2012; Portenga et al., 2017; Sebbens, Andersen, & Hanrahan, 2012). In fact, evidence of these two different foci of performance excellence and therapy is corroborated by the American Psychological Association (APA, 2019), which lists various principle strategies and procedures that a proficient sport psychologist is expected to address such as:
- Psychological skills training for athletes
- Goal-setting and performance profiling for athletes
- Visualisation and performance planning for athletes
- Enhancing self-confidence for athletes
- Cognitive-behavioural self-regulation techniques for athletes
- Concentration and attentional control strategies for athletes
- Poise and emotion management training for athletes
- Attribution interpretations and self-assessment in sport
- Eating disorders and weight management interventions for athletes
- Substance abuse interventions for athletes
- Dealing with the use of ergogenic aids to athletic performance
- Grief, depression, loss, and suicide counselling for athletes
- Overtraining and burnout counselling
- Sexual identity issues in sport counselling
- Aggression and violence counselling in sports
- Athletic injury and rehabilitation
- Career transitions and identity foreclosure in sports
- Team cohesion training
- Team building
- Leadership training
- Moral and character development in sports and sportsmanship
- Development of self-confidence, self-esteem, and competence in sports
- Interventions to address parental and familial needs involved in youth sports participation
- Coaches’ education regarding motivation, interpersonal, and leadership skills
- Education of coaches and administrators regarding early identification and prevention of psychological difficulties such as eating disorders or serious anxiety reactions
Given this wide variety of roles and challenges sport psychologists are laden with, from those struggling with the stressors of sport and life to those searching for more successful performances, knowledge of basic performance psychology interventions such as mental skills training can provide an initial platform to inform practice (Spruill et al., 2004; Zaichkowsky & Naylor, 2005). However, as recently stated by Weinberg (2014), “Many professional organisati...
