Comparative Approaches to Compassion

Understanding Nonviolence in World Religions and Politics

Ramin Jahanbegloo

• Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic
• Year: 2022
• ISBN:
  9781350288881
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Filosofía
• Subtopic: Filosofía política

Ramin Jahanbegloo develops the concept of compassion as a practical and ethical response to the problems of today's world. Examining the power of compassion through the lens of multiple world religions, he explores ahimsa in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism and neighbourly love in Christianity, before synthesizing the two concepts in the Gandhian theory of non-violence and its impact on Muslim and Christian thinkers such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Martin Luther King, Jr. Jahanbegloo considers the idea of a compassionate civilization based on the nonviolent democratic theory put forward by Gandhi with Swaraj, and completed by Martin Luther King, Jr. with the Beloved Community. By scrutinizing compassion in various religious and ethical traditions and exploring the relevance of homo fragilis, Jahanbegloo's comparative approach enriches our understanding of nonviolence as a universal philosophy and practice for the 21st century. He shows that nonviolence is not only a mode of thinking and a way of life, but also a powerful strategy of social and political transformation.

1

Ahimsa in Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism: A Compassionate View of Life

Ahimsa is a Sanskrit word derived from the root (hiṃsā) which means to harm or to strike. Ahimsa refers specifically to the opposite of violence and hurting. In today’s world, we refer to the concept of ahimsa to describe a moral or spiritual attitude of harmlessness, non-killing, and nonviolence. Ahimsa is the key concept of the three religions that originated in ancient India: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It is hardly necessary to point out that there is a basic identity in the broad conception of non-killing among the Buddhist, the Jain, and the Hindu doctrines. As such, compassion for the other living beings and the total avoidance of violence are necessary to ascetic life in these three religions. However:

In ancient India, ahimsa was an instrument/agency of action rather than the real action itself, and one did not encounter the development of an autonomous and full-scale philosophy of ahimsa in early India, but as appendages of larger philosophies. Even in Buddhism, ahimsa was part of sheel (conduct), and enjoyed a lower status in comparison to karuna (compassion) and maitreyi. (love, benevolence).¹

As a result, we can see here the compassionate attitude toward life and the emergence of emphasis on ahimsa as part of a worldview which considers the practice of self-restraint and nonviolence as modes of action related to the metaphysical acceptance of the sameness of life. For example, in the Vedic tradition what makes the doctrine of ahimsa the key to the idea of a compassionate attitude in life is certainly the belief in an ultimate metaphysical realization of the absolute and faultless sameness of Brahman in one chain of Being. A similar view of the matter may be discerned in Buddhism and Jainism, though one needs to take into consideration the essential differences between Hinduism and the other two religions. Nonetheless, if life has any value for these three religious doctrines, it has value only in relation with the concept of ahimsa. Ahimsa, therefore, is a key concept in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions which is understood as an exemplary individual abstention from direct himsa. In other words, we are not talking here about the Gandhian use of this term as involving truth (satya) and self-sacrifice. However, it is important to note that Gandhi’s use of the concept of ahimsa is directly related to the influence of Jainism and his Jain mentor Shrimad Rajchandra (1867–1901).

Consequently, any conceptual history of the word ahimsa should start with a survey of Jainism. Jainism is part of the great spiritual movements in Indian thought during the post-Vedic period. In this respect, Jainism is a religious tradition that is contemporary with Buddhism. In fact, Jainism opposed, in the manner of Buddhism, the corruption that was afflicting Hinduism by questioning practices such as the caste system. During the fifth century BCE Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, who later became known as the Buddha announced his doctrine of the Four Noble Truths (Chatvari-arya-satyani), emphasizing the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that initiates the end of suffering. Almost at the same time, the sage Vardhamana later given the title Mahavira (the great hero), introduced the method of sense control by means of gradual deprivation and set an example by his conduct. He left his home at the age of thirty and wandered for twelve years in search of salvation. However, at the age of forty-two he attained enlightenment and founded an order of naked priests and taught his doctrine for thirty years. He died in 468 BC at the age of seventy-two in the Patna region. Jainism takes its name from the doctrine expounded by a jina, an individual who attained supreme knowledge by mastering his earthly steps. By conquering control of his five senses and turning away all its karmas, the jina attains supreme knowledge and spends the rest of his life in Dharma Prabhavana, preaching the principles of the Jain religion to human beings. It is because of this noble task that a jina is also called a Tirthankara, i.e., one who helps human beings cross the ocean of life by providing them with a boat in the form of Dharma (law or duty). According to the first principle of Jainism, human being is a dual creature: it is both material and spiritual. It is not a perfect being, because its soul (jiva) undergoes the place imposed by karma. So it goes through various incarnations, going through the circle of rebirths (samsara), sometimes in a higher form, sometimes in a lower form. When matter exerts its full influence, karma has its full effect. The universe, according to Jainism, is divided between the soul (jiva) and the non-soul or inanimate substance (ajiva). The entire Jain philosophy is based on the interaction of these two principles. It is the interaction between all that is living and all that is non-living that produces the elements of life such as birth and death. Five inanimate substances are opposed to the soul: matter, space (akasa), time (kala), the cause of movement (dharma) and the cause of rest (adharma). Thus the general conditions of being are defined. But how does matter attach itself to the soul? Karma, which is of a material nature, attaches itself to the soul by an influx, or asrava, and imposes on it a place (bandha) by subjecting it to successive rebirths (samsara). In order for the soul to free itself from matter, the moral law must show it the means.

The principles of Jain morality are contained in the five prescriptions or commandments called “vartas.” They must be respected and applied in all circumstances. The first of these prohibitions is the strict duty of ahimsa (non-harm). For Jains, compassion, as not harming the Other, is the supreme law. A Jain monk must refrain from killing any living thing. To injure, cause pain, or destroy living beings is considered the most serious sin. Jain sutras such as Acharanga Sutra and Sutrakritanga Sutra present non-compassion and harm (himsa) as the major sin on every page. According to Jainism, what creates violence is not only the harmful act, but more importantly the intention to harm and the absence of compassion. That is why ahimsa is not a negative state of mind. It is the expression of a positive virtue which is compassion. As such, for Jainism, ahimsa enfolds unity of compassion as intention and the action of nonviolence. Therefore, it demands respect and responsibility for every life form. As a result, according to the precepts of Jainism, a man cannot practice ahimsa and be non-compassionate. Indeed, “Basing itself on Anckantavada, a metaphysical view that Reality is many-faceted, Jainism has championed the cause of ahimsa in full vigour, not only by openly condemning wanton cruelty to any creature, but by making it mandatory in practice to avoid harming any kind of living creatures to the extent that is humanly possible.”² But though a metaphysical doctrine, Jainism remains also very pragmatic. As such, the compassionate approach of Jainism to life and living beings in general demands a full application of ahimsa in relation to the economic, social, and political enterprises of human beings. “Such an encompassing meaning of ahimsa envisions global harmony consisting of man and nature. In case of man, ahimsa encapsulates unity of action and intention while in case of nature it demands respect for every life form.”³ In some respect, ahimsa and Jainism stand as parallel terms. Not only are they parallel but are also so interconnected that one is incomplete without the other. Maybe that is the reason why Mahatma Gandhi was so directly inspired by the concept of ahimsa in Jainism that he revitalized it under the name of “nonviolence” and took it into account in a broader context of global politics.

As it was pointed out, Jain monk’s compassion and respect for life extends to all its forms, whether it be human, animal, plant, water, or even fire. But, according to the principles of Jainism, showing compassion toward all that lives is not enough; one must also abstain from lying and renounce all forms of property. Ahimsa is therefore practiced by the Jain monk in a form of activity that is at once corporal, mental, and verbal. Ahimsa is the supreme law (ahimsa paramo dharma) and the ultimate ideal of the Jain monk is self-realization. There are many similarities between Buddhism and Jainism when it comes to understanding the essential role of ahimsa in these two religious doctrines. Actually, they both emphasize on dharma (moral duty) and moksa (liberation) and ahimsa (nonviolence). Consequently:

Buddhist thought attempted to give ahimsa a wider significance by forbidding all forms of himsa, or injury to sentient beings, and by encouraging a constant effort to remove the suffering of others, as expressed in the idea of karuna, or compassion. What is truly remarkable is the way these philosophers link the cognitive, the volitional and the emotional aspects of their enquiry into values.⁴

In the Buddhist doctrine, pain and suffering give meaning to the concept of compassion. It is because all life is pain and suffering that human beings should be compassionate and nonviolent. The human being suffers because it is dependent on its “Self.” Therefore, at the origin of pain is the desire for the “Self.” It is actually an attachment to the world, which constitutes the force of Karma, that is not affected by death. According to the teachings of the Buddha, desire must be suppressed in order to put an end to pain and the cycle of rebirths. Buddhism, therefore, suggests a complete destruction of all thought of the Self, which opens the door to Nirvana, a state defined by the extinction of passions. As such, human beings must purify themselves of all selfishness and of all sins, by defying all forms of pleasure and desire. Interestingly, Buddhism considers hatred and anger as forms of desire. Anger in the mind gives rise to anger in the act. So, in order to follow the path of wisdom, humans must have a just thought. To be unjust, according to the Buddha, is to be uncompassionate and violent. In other words, in the Buddhist philosophy, justice and ahimsa go hand in hand. As a result, ahimsa is the highest of virtues, because the Bodhisattva is an ocean of compassion and tolerance. Buddhism proclaims compassion for the enemies and non-harm for all living beings. As it is said in The Dhammapada: “Not to commit any sin, to do good, and to purify one’s mind, that is the teaching of (all) the Awakened.”⁵ Thus, what Buddhism teaches is that there can be no peace of mind against hardship and suffering in life with compassion. And, this is not only for the good of others but also for the happiness of oneself. As His Holiness the Dalai Lama, who is believed by Tibetan Buddhists to be the manifestation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, underlines:

The first beneficiary of compassion is always oneself. When compassion, or warmheartedness, arises in us and shifts our focus away from our own narrow self-interest, it is as if we open an inner door. Compassion reduces our fear, boosts our confidence, and brings us a sense of connection with them and a sense of purpose and meaning in life. Compassion also gives us respite from our own difficulties.⁶

What can be concluded from Dalai Lama’s comments on compassion is that Buddhism by modifying the preexisting Vedic concept of ahimsa recognized that the intentional harming of some life carried deep moral consequences.

Buddhism, however, never took the concept of ahimsa to the logical extreme of Jainism. The Buddha criticized the Vedic Brahmans concerning animal sacrifice but did not forbid livelihoods that entailed the unintentional taking of life such as farming. Along with Jainism and Hinduism, Buddhism discouraged livelihoods such as fishing, hunting, or butchering and also held to vegetarianism as logical outcomes of ahimsa. It would seem that although the overriding principle is that of ahimsa, Buddhism recognizes that one cannot follow this principle absolutely, that day-to-day living entails some unintentional and largely unavoidable taking of some sentient life.⁷

To be sure, one cannot understand Mahayana Buddhism without the radical form of compassion as an altruistic behavior combined with ahimsa. Here, the concept of “suffering with” is as important as “non-harming” the Other. As such, in the context of Mahayana Buddhism, compassion demands much more than just sweet talk. As a matter of fact, compassion is a very serious moral imperative which connotes kindness, generosity, and responsibility.

Compassion, according to the Dalai Lama, is an attitude that not only wishes for others to be free of their suffering, but is also “associated with a sense of commitment, responsibility, and respect towards the other.” He insists that the commitment, responsibility, and respect engendered by compassion impel us to help others if we can. A compassionate person isn’t one who merely renders lip service to freeing others from suffering or one who expresses a vague wish that others be happy. Instead, the Dalai Lama says that a compassionate person develops a strong commitment to free others from suffering and its causes and to experience happiness.⁸

His Holiness the Dalai Lama, therefore, makes a connection between the compassionate intention and act of the Self and the unhappiness of the Other. There is at this point an inseparable relationship between the emotional and the moral on the one hand and the absence of self-interest in relation with the care for the otherness of the Other on the other. As we can see, the ethic of compassion is the key element of nonviolent action and exercise of justice in Tibetan Buddhism. This is a subject which is at the heart of the teachings of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. According to him:

Nothing in the principle of compassion—the wish to see others relieved of suffering—involves surrendering to the misdeeds of others. Nor does compassion demand that we meekly accept injustice. Far from promoting weakness or passivity, compassion requires great fortitude and strength of character. Some of the great fighters against injustice of recent times, people of strong character and determination like Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King, Jr., Vaclav Havel and others-have been motivated by universal compassion. One could not describe such people as meek or retiring just because they combined their devotion to the welfare of others with a commitment to nonviolence.⁹

In other words, when it comes to injustice and wrongdoing, Buddhism (in the same way as Jainism and Hinduism) turns to the two concepts of compassion and ahimsa to restore the balance in life.

Compassion is the kind of virtue that can be extended limitlessly. Unlike material goods, compassion can’t be exhausted. Tibetan Buddhism observes that as compassion increases in its scope or breadth,...