Digital Inequalities in the Global South focuses on the rising digital inequalities in countries from geographical areas that are insufficiently covered and underrepresented. While in the so-called Global South (Mahler 2015) access to the Internet has risen tremendously in the last years (shrinking the first level of the digital divide), new inequalities are emerging between those who have access to broadband Internet and those who do not, between gender, between different socioeconomic backgrounds, and between users with different levels of education. Going beyond the first level of the digital divide, new forms of inequalities also emerged in relation to different digital skills, digital competencies, and different motivations in using information communication technologies (ICTs). Both limited access to and use of the Internet affect citizensâ existential opportunities (van Dijk 2005) and negatively influence the process of social inclusion (Warshauer 2004), thus contributing to offline disadvantages (Chen 2013). Finally, new forms of digital inequalities are related to the so-called third level of the digital divide (Ragnedda 2017), namely, the different capacity/ability to fully exploit the Internet and to transform its use into tangible outcomes. The third level of the digital divide, therefore, ârelate to gaps in individualsâ capacity to translate their internet access and use into favorable offline outcomesâ (Van Deursen and Helsper 2015: 30). Such inequalities in the social benefits of using the Internet are growing everywhere but especially in the Global South. This book, therefore, fits into the lively debate, opened by the advent of ICTs, on inequalities in access (first level of the digital divide), uses (second level of the digital divide), and outcomes generated online and valuable in the social realm (third level of the digital divide).
Digital Inequalities in the Global South focuses on social, cultural, and economic consequences of digital inequalities where the majority of the worldâs people now live (Asia, Africa, and Latin America). These communities are at a distinct disadvantage when digital technologies are introduced (Boas et al. 2005), specifically in terms of participation and types of digital engagement. Since more and more activities and public services moved online, those who are excluded tend to miss the opportunities offered by the advent of the Internet. The main idea in this book, therefore, is to underline, with specific case studies, how marginalized communities are now attempting to participate in the information age, despite high costs and the lack of relevant content and technological support. How are these barriers preventing (or limiting) disadvantaged communities from using computers and the Internet? Is the Global South still at risk of being left behind? How has the Global South changed in the last years? How is the Global South facing these challenges?
The rapid progress of the digital technologiesâ infrastructure is crucial for countries seeking to combat poverty and exclusion and guarantee basic services. The development of ICTs opens new opportunities to attain higher levels of progress and growth and may help in creating an environment that fosters innovation, nurtures science, empowers active citizens, and spurs business growth and has become a priority for developing countries. However, these advantages are often overemphasized and seem the reflection of the Western gaze in relation to peripheral societies. The Global South is caught in a growing paradox. On the one hand, rapid technological advancement is fostering economic prosperity, creating greater communication and information possibilities, and helping in fighting for democracy. On the other hand, not everybody is enjoying the possibilities offered by digital technologies, and digital inequalities are increasingly hindering economic and social development, exacerbating already existing inequalities. There is, therefore, a need to go beyond this techno-evangelist and Western-centered approach that sees the development of ICTs as the main leading force able to drive economic, cultural, and social development by adopting a critical approach that underlines also the disadvantages that digital inequalities are bringing to the Global South.
The book presents a wide range of case studies of digital inequalities that are accessibly presented in ways that will be illuminating for students and experienced researchers alike. We have split the book into four main sections that acknowledge not only the geographical diversities but also the necessity of ordering the chapters into sections according to these diversities.
In the first section of this book, namely, âDigital Inequalities in South Asiaâ, four different chapters discuss the phenomenon of digital inequalities, focusing on four different countries: Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In the second section of this volume, we have included three chapters under a section called âDigital Inequalities in Central and Western Asiaâ. These chapters underlined the rising digital inequalities in Palestine, South East Turkey, and Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries. In the third section of this book, we give voice to four countries in Africa, namely, Malawi, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, and an overview of sub-Saharan Africa. In the fourth and final section of this book, called âDigital Inequalities in South Americaâ, we have included three chapters from South America, namely, Jamaica, Argentina, and a transnational analysis of Colombia, Chile, Mexico, and Brazil.
More specifically, the book starts with an introductory theoretical chapter clarifying the importance of studying digital inequalities in the Global South, written by Massimo Ragnedda and Anna Gladkova. The core idea is that social inequalities are strongly intertwined with digital inequalities. The chapter briefly introduces the concept of digital inequalities and their evolution over the years. This chapter also orients the reader to the theoretical grounding provided by social theorists and explains how this can be applied to a variety of settings in comparative international perspectives. Finally, the chapter provides the reader with a view on the project as a whole by surveying some of the dynamics that shape and influence digital inequalities.
The first section on âDigital Inequalities in South Asiaâ opens with a chapter that focuses on the âImpacts of the Digital Divide on E-government Portals of Nepalâ. This chapter, written by Bhanu Bhakta Acharya, sheds light on the Nepal context, underlining how this country is a landlocked and the least-developed country in South Asia with a population of 29 million (Karan et al. 2018).
Although reliable global statistics are hard to come by, particularly for the Global South, according to Internet Live Stats (2016), less than 20% of the population in Nepal has access to the Internet. The capital city and other major urban areas have a higher concentration of Internet facilities, with 3G and 4G Internet services, but most of the rural areas rely on limited access to the Internet with slow 2G Internet using the global system for mobile communications (GSM) and code-division multiple access (CDMA) technologies (Nepal Telecommunications Authority 2018). Most Internet users have access to the Internet through mobile devices and primarily use it for social networking and interactions (ibid.). This book chapter argues that the digital divide negatively affects Nepal in terms of economic growth, development, and the E-government delivery of services and, consequently, efforts of government service delivery through digital platforms are inadequate and ineffective. The first part of this book chapter will present an overview on the state of the digital divide in Nepal, primarily focusing on available services and opportunities on digital platforms, and usersâ access to these services. The second part will present a critical assessment of the 22 websites of the Federal Government Ministries by using Layne and Leeâs (2001) four-stage model of E-government development, in terms of providing services and opportunities to its users. The second chapter of this section focuses on âA Widening Digital Divide and Its Impacts on Existing Social Inequalities and Democracy in Pakistanâ. Sadia Jamil highlights how the ICT sector is widely recognized as an engine for the overall socioeconomic development of countries worldwide. Governments in many countries of the world, especially in the Global South, are trying to expand their ICTs infrastructures and reduce digital inequalities for fostering social inclusion and civic participation, thereby to strengthen democracy and economic growth. In the case of Pakistan, concentrated efforts have been made for the proliferation of ICT infrastructure by the government during the past decade. Consequently, in terms of Internet users, âPakistan is the fourth-largest country in Asiaâbehind Indonesia, India and Chinaâ (Hussain 2017). However, according to a global digital report this year, only 22% of the Pakistani population uses the Internet, which indicates a very slow Internet penetration in the country. The matter of concern is not only the slow Internet penetration in Pakistan but also the various political, sociocultural, and other constraints that hinder the publicâs access and their usage of the Internet. The Government of Pakistan often restricts Internet access or limits the provision of Internet services in certain areas of the country, curbing the publicâs right to freedom of expression and access to information.
Furthermore, this chapter shows how womenâs access to the Internet and mobile phones is often restricted or monitored by male family members, resulting in their inability to effectively represent their issues online and participate in the democratic process. And, in the majority of rural areas, both men and women neither have access to the Internet and mobile phone nor are they literate and/or skilled enough to use these technologies. Moreover, people with disabilities are also not capable to use the Internet due to a lack of provision of special needs equipment such as keyboards, screens, and accessibility aids for sensory impairments. In Pakistan, there is no standardized access and usage of the Internet and that is widening the digital divide. If this divide is not addressed, there are risks that the Internet will aggravate the marginalization of communities and social inequalities. Therefore, bridging the digital divide is essential for giving voice to the marginalized communities and promoting civic participation, thereby strengthening democracy in the country.
The third chapter in this first section is written by Padma Rani, Binod C. Agrawal, and Manjushree G. Naik. In this chapter, titled âWidening the Wedge: Digital Inequalities and Social Media in Indiaâ, the authors argue that social inequalities are increasing after the rapid penetration, acceptance, and use of various digital media in India. Social media especially have added another dimension of social stratification to sociopolitical and economic areas due to the rapid spread of digital media. According to Weber, social stratification is an interplay of class, status, and group dynamics. Some researchers like Kuttan and Peters 2003 (cited in Ragnedda 2017) have suggested that technological repercussions may increase social inequality. The authors stress this point by underlining how the technological world is a reflection of the social world and will lead to an increase in social inequality in Indian society, regardless of the fact that the penetration of the Internet in India has been growing rapidly. The acceleration in Internet users in India is also supported by the Digital India initiative of the Government of India to empower every citizen with access to digital services, knowledge, and information to increase accountability, transparency, and ease of transaction, benefiting all sections of society.
Finally, the last chapter in this first section, written by Mohammad Sahid Ullah, focuses on how the use and implementation of ICTs have contributed to deep-seated economic and social change across the globe. âICTs, Power Prejudice and Empowerment: Digital Exclusion of the Poor in Rural Bangladeshâ shows how this kind of optimistic estimation, however, has not been able to prove its potential as a me...