Human Onslaught Over the Coasts
A coastal zone is considered as the seaside terrain and it is the interface between the mainland and the sea. Coasts are unique, valuable and often threatened areas where the sea meets the land (Goodwin 2015). Coastal zones are continually changing due to the dynamic interaction between the oceans and the land (Nelson 2018).
Sri Lanka is an island enriched with various kinds of coastal resources which consist of a 1620 km long coastline all around the country (Lakmali et al. 2016). Due to rapid increase of population and developmental projects near coasts, these areas have particularly become more vulnerable. Due to various development activities in relation to various sectors such as construction, engineering, tourism, fishery and cultivation, coasts are degraded; some are able to be mitigated while some are not.
Coastal line in Sri Lanka is nowadays being threatened by different causes including increasing population pressure. The natural environment is being converted into artificial ports, tourist beaches and residential places. The result is severe erosion of beaches and excessive sedimentation (United Nations Environment Programme n.d.). Rising sea levels, topological disasters, soil erosion by water and degradation of the natural seascape are identified as broader problems which may influence coasts (Encyclopedia 2018).
Sri Lanka has a nearly 1700 km long coastline and a 30,000 km2 continental shelf area up to 120 m deep (Koralagama 2008). As Prasada et al. (2015) cited from the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development, the coastal zone contains 26 major fisheries harbors; 58 boat anchorages; 193 improved landing centres; 890 minor fish landing centres; a fishing fleet of 51,127 boats of different sizes; a marine fishing household population of 824,680; and five seaports. The above statistical data shows the nature of activities in the relevant area and the extent of responsibility coming under the scope of marine environment protection in the country. Thus, maintaining coastal environment protection becomes paramount.
Population growth threatens the coastal zone (Samaranayake 1997). Once the population starts to increase, resources fall short with respect to population growth, therefore overutilization, overexploitation and overextraction is justified for survival. Coastal erosion has become a severe problem that results in damaging or destroying buildings, coastal structures and other infrastructure of the country. It also causes loss or degradation of valuable land and disrupts fishing, navigation, recreation and other activities (Coast Conservation Department 1997). A coastal departure, due to erosion by the sea, caused the loss of several square miles of the coast, especially in the southwestern region in Sri Lanka (Amarasinghe and Gerritsen 1976). Prasada et al. (2015) noted that threats are still prevalent in the sustainability of a healthy marine environment in Sri Lanka. The National Report of Sri Lanka has identified many threats to the coastal and marine environment and its living resources, coastal and marine habitats, shoreline stability, coastal and marine fisheries, brackish water fisheries and culture, coastal and marine biodiversity (Prasada et al. 2015).
Tsunami was a huge threat that badly impacted the coasts. The shoreline in Sri Lanka was severely affected and eroded with debris and seawater which resulted in destroying cultivatable lands, paddy fields and natural vegetation in the area (Nayanananda 2007). The tsunami in 2004 effected Galle district severely by destroying 70% of buildings located on the coastline and nearly 30% of structures within 1 km inland (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2004).
Releasing garbage into the sea and coasts is another dangerous problem which has massively threatened natural environment and living beings in the sea and related areas too. There are frequent reports on the occurrences of dumping of ship-generated waste in the ocean, causing serious environmental and economic damages (Marine Environment Protection Authority 2014). Sunday Times (2016) reported that Sri Lanka has become a reported country in garbage dumping into the sea. Sri Lanka ‘Global Coastal Index’ represented a very bad picture with the island being ranked fifth out of 20 countries identified for dumping polythene and plastic to the ocean (Daily News 2017). Tissera (2018) pointed once that the coastal waste becomes more disruptive after the rains, weekends and during festivals. Sri Lanka Coast Guard (SLCG) works closely with the Maritime Environment Protection Authority in marine cleaning operations and also in terms of solid coastal litter; the situation is worse in the Southern and the Western Provinces.
Storms can impact the coastline at a higher rate than others. As per Lakmali et al. (2016), in the North-east coastline severe long-term erosions can be observed in some places like Verugal, and after the starting of the Pulmudei plant, the sediment supply has been reduced to downstream and thus it has resulted in downstream erosion.
Coral and sand mining in the coasts is another problem that effects coastal erosion. Improper mining for coral, sands, seashells, and limestone may adversely affect the coastal zone and the sustainability of coastal habitat. Lakmali et al. (2016) noted that earlier, many locations in these coastlines were subjected to severe erosions, for example Lansigama, Uswetakeiyawa, and and so on, and this was mainly due to the use of sea sand as an alternative to river sand policy.
“Recreations” done around beaches are another well-known cause for coastal erosion. In Sri Lanka, this has become prevalent and can be seen as beach-oriented resort development that has taken place in Negombo and Bentota on the west coast, Kalkudah, the North of Trincomalee and Arugam Bay on the East coast, and Hikkaduwa on the South coast (Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority 2019). The coastline of the Western province is the most visited tourist destination in Sri Lanka and many of these tourists travel a long distance to observe nature while the same experience can be provided within the basin with less travel time and this would also contribute to the enhancement of local economy (Ministry of Agriculture 2017). Therefore, it is impossible to expect the end of these activities and hence, the coastal areas will be prone to gradual degradation.
In recent times, the erosion problem has been heightened by consequences of sand and coral mining and other engineering and industrial activities in the coastal area by numerous parties and the rapid development of the tourism industry in the last decade has also had a huge impact on this matter. Under the country’s development plans, priority is undoubtedly given to the preservation and environmental control of the beaches and for the effective management of the coasts. Thus, the development activities need to be in tandem with these conservation plans too.
This chapter examines the coastal management planning and its effectiveness in Sri Lanka with reference to the local context based on the secondary data.
What Is a Coastal Zone?
Coastal zone can be identified as the ‘dividing boundary’ between sea and land (Isobe 1991). Coastal regions are intensely dynamic areas and of critical importance to humans. Coastal conservation act of Sri Lanka (1981) defines Coastal Zone as the area lying within a limit of 300 m landwards of the Mean High Water line and a limit of 2 km seawards of the Mean Low Waterline. Coastal zones contain a variety of Earth’s most complex and diverse ecological systems, productive both biologically and economically.
Coastal erosion weakens the coastal zone despite being a natural process that occurs whenever earth/sand is eroded from the shoreline. It is commonly referred to as the loss of landmass into sea due to natural processes such as waves, winds, and tides, or even due to human interference (Science Daily 2019). At present, coastal erosion is very common and about 70% of the sandy coasts are subjected to erosion around the world (YeYincan 2017).
Forty percent of the world’s population lives not far from the coast and rely on coastal and marine ecosystems, habitats and resources for food, building materials, building sites and agricultural and recreational areas, while utilizing coastal areas as a dumping ground for sewage and garbage too (Ducrotoy 2019). The sea margins are affected almost everywhere by man, and intrusion on coastal areas continues worldwide (Schubel 1994). Human actions impact massively on coastal erosion; they cannot be limited. Causes for coastal...