Introduction
Criminological research has made significant advances in the development, deployment, and evaluation of the myriad crime prevention strategies designed to identify and target individuals at various stages of the offending life cycle. This work, however, is principally rooted in understandings of what may be loosely called âtraditionalâ crime settings (Newman and Clarke 2003). Cybercrime is a relatively new crime type, and there has been little systematic attention given to the specific digital settings and contexts in which it occurs. As a result, many cybercrime prevention recommendations are not necessarily evidence-based. Such initiatives also tend to ignore the role of the offender (who can often displace to new targets or methods) and place the onus on victims to protect themselves. Scholars, practitioners, and policymakers are now seeking more effective ways to prevent cyber-offenders from attacking certain targets and to practically facilitate desistance from serious forms of cybercrimes. At present, they face a largely undeveloped theoretical and empirical body of literature.
Identifying and articulating evidence-based approaches to cybercrime prevention is critical due to the increasingly serious economic, national security, and political harms associated with the now-routine reports of compromised computer systems that have been used to access, reveal, or resell sensitive data (Franklin et al. 2007; Holt et al. 2016; Hutchings and Holt 2016; Motoyama et al. 2011). This book addresses this knowledge gap by investigating the applicability of evidence-based interventions to prevent cyber-dependent crimes. That is, crimes that can only be committed using a computer or network and include such acts as spreading viruses , malware , spyware , malicious hacking , and distributed denial of service attacks (DDoS ) (McGuire and Dowling 2013).1 These attacks have become a common global problem: in 2015, more than 1600 data breaches targeting governmental and private organisations exposed over 707 million records around the world (Gemalto 2015). Moreover, users of private computers, smartphones, and even medical devices increasingly report infiltration of their devices by illegitimate users (Storm 2015). This book adopts a broad definition of cyber-dependent crime that includes both âillicit intrusions into computer networksâ, as well as the âdisruption or downgrading of computer functionality and network spaceâ (McGuire and Dowling 2013, p. 4). Accordingly, the term âcyber-offender â used throughout this book is also to be construed broadlyâdenoting those who use their knowledge to cause harm to, or directly damage, computer software, hardware, and data . This may include the use of malware (whether created by the individual or purchased/acquired from others) or exploits, or the manipulation of human actors to achieve said goals. This breadth is merited due to the range of interests and attack techniques that can be, and have already been, used by individuals to successfully complete a cyberattack. Additionally, researchers have noted the overlapping interests and skills needed in order to write malware , engage in DDoS attacks on a fee-for-service basis, or complete malicious hacks more generally (DĂ©cary-HĂ©tu and Dupont 2012).
Overall, the book aims to make a substantial original contribution to how the discipline of criminology understands and can reasonably apply longstanding, tried and tested, traditional crime prevention techniques to the digital realm, particularly for cyber-dependent crimes . In doing so, it breaks new ground and articulates the ways that crime prevention research and practice needs to be reimagined for an increasingly digital world.
This introductory chapter sets the scene for the book, providing an overview of the core principles associated with crime prevention targeting that will be drawn upon throughout. It chronicles the unique aspects of offending within digital contexts, and in particular, explicates offending lifecycles, and flags significant points of divergence from what is broadly accepted for offline forms of offending. Next, it provides a methodological account of the approach taken in researching this book, before concluding with an overview of chapters to come.
Approaches to Crime Prevention
In crafting any sort of preventative measure, be it on- or offline, it is important to first consider the point at which (i.e. when) an intervention is most suitable. Taking cues from an established public health literature, crime prevention scholars acknowledge that interventions can be designed to target different points (in this case, of the offending life cycle). These can broadly occur at one of three stages (Brantingham and Faust 1976). First, interventions can be designed to target the primary prevention stage, whereby they are intended to target and prevent criminal behaviour before it occurs. Interventions appearing at this stage are considered to be the most universal, being largely undiscriminating and targeted at wide populations. Such interventions tend to focus upon the earliest stages of the offender life cycle, before potential offenders begin engaging in criminal behaviours. Typically, interventions occurring at this stage involve reducing opportunities for crime, or enhancing social factors that reduce an individualâs likelihood of becoming involved in crime. The next stage, classed as secondary prevention , is targeted towards people at risk of embarking on a criminal career, such as children who show some signs of delinquent behaviour. Such interventions, therefore, devote effort and resources towards those who may have an increased proclivity for criminal conduct, but before they graduate into more serious offending. Finally, the tertiary prevention stage focuses on treating individuals after they have become involved in crime. The focus at this stage is to prevent individuals reoffending. This is the most targeted level of intervention, by which individuals are formally referred to programming by the criminal justice system following a criminal conviction.
Determining the appropriate stage at which an intervention is to be directed can be based on several factors, including characteristics of the crime and the offender group, as well as more practical considerations such as resources. In particular, much research suggests the development of effective interventions relies on the accurate identification of factors known to contribute to offending (e.g. Bonta and Andrews 2017; Andrews and Bonta 2010; Andrews et al. 1990; Dowden and Andrews 1999; Koehler et al. 2013). Considerable research...