Computer Games and Language Learning

M. Peterson

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9781137005175
• Topic: Filología
• Subtopic: Alemán

A comprehensive and accessible overview for language educators, researchers, and students, this book examines the relationship between technological innovation and development in the field of computer-assisted language learning, exploring relevant theories and providing practical evidence about the use of computer games in language learning.

CHAPTER 1

CALL and New Digital Technologies

Assimilating New Computer Technologies in CALL: An Overview

Innovations in computer technology have a history of use in language education dating back over five decades (Davies 2007; Kerth 1995). Davies (1997, 27) observes that computers and computer-based technologies have been in use in language education since the 1960s. The early uses of computer technologies were influenced by the computer-assisted instruction (henceforth CAI) movement, and development continued with the eventual emergence of CALL in the 1980s. In order to obtain a broad perspective on the potential of computer gaming in language education, an examination of how three significant developments in computer technology were applied in the past is instructive, as it provides valuable insights that are highly relevant to the needs of the present.

Mainframe Computers

The development of commercial mainframe computers in the 1950s led to interest from educational researchers in using their capacities as instructional tools. One of the first attempts to use a mainframe-based computer system in education was the PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) system initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960. As the name suggests, this system was grounded in the behaviorist view of CAI dominant at the time. PLATO made use of mainframe computers connected to multilingual student terminals, and was designed to provide self-paced programmed instruction in a variety of fields for large numbers of students (Butler-Pascoe 2011). The system incorporated a number of novel features including a touch screen that displayed graphics (Ariew 1974) and an early form of email that enabled individual users to communicate with each other in real time through the use of typed text. Moreover, PLATO provided access to audio, on-screen help, and an advanced management system. This was designed to facilitate monitoring and record keeping of student performance (Chapelle and Jamieson 1981). The system utilized a programming language known as TUTOR that enabled teachers to participate in materials development. In language education, PLATO was used to provide a variety of language-learning activities that drew on audiolingualism. Typical activities included multiple choice–based grammar and vocabulary drills, tutorials, and translation tests. The technologies provided were advanced for the time, and the system was seen as a highly promising tool for foreign language education (Grundlehner 1974; Hart 1981). The use of PLATO to teach a variety of languages generated a high degree of interest and expectation in the CALL research community (Hart 1995, 17). Researchers investigated the use of the system in a number of learner-based projects (Beatty 2003). Work focused on the use of PLATO in Russian (Curtin et al. 1972), German (Grundlehner 1974), and French courses (Marty 1981, 1982). The above researchers claimed that the system offered a number of advantages including self-paced individualized practice, feedback, reduced anxiety, and enhanced motivation. However, limitations of the system soon became apparent. The need for learner training and hardware limitations were identified as issues, as was the presence of negative teacher attitudes toward the system (Grundlehner 1974). These factors, and high development costs, represented barriers to use (Marty 1982).

Over the years of its operation, the PLATO system generated a sizeable database of instructional materials covering a variety of foreign languages. As Hart (1995, 35) points out, elements of the system foreshadowed later multimedia technologies. As Levy observes (1997, 17) although subject to limitations, PLATO was an innovative project and represented one of the first attempts to use new computer technologies in language education on a large scale and in a sustained manner. However, the early promise of the system was not followed up. Federal funding was withdrawn, and this factor coupled with high development costs (Ahmad et al. 1985), licensing issues (R. Sanders 1995), and a general reaction among language educators against programmed learning (Salaberry 2001), led development work to be curtailed. These issues, and the rapid pace of technological change, resulted in a situation where the original PLATO system is now no longer under active development.

Multimedia CD-ROMs

The emergence of microcomputers in the late 1970s stimulated new developments in language-learning software. As most early microcomputers lacked audio and video, programs of the time were largely designed around text-based activities (Higgins and Johns 1984). However, by the 1980s, technology had advanced to the stage where personal computers incorporating CD-ROM drives, sound cards, and video-playing capabilities had made their appearance. These developments, coupled with advances in digital storage technologies, prompted the creation of multimedia CD-ROMs designed specifically for use in language education. These combined text-based learning activities with access to high quality audio, visually appealing color graphics, and video. They further provided a higher degree of interactivity than early programs through the provision of hypertext and more user-friendly interfaces (Iwabuchi and Fotos 2004). The emergence of multimedia CD-ROMs occurred at a time when new views of computer-based learning had become increasingly influential. These views came to be identified with the concept of CALL. This concept emphasized a move away from drills to more creative and engaging uses of computers (Philips 1987). Multimedia CD-ROMs were perceived as tools with great potential by CALL researchers (Watts 1997; Woodbury 1998) as they offered exposure to comprehensible input, and immediate feedback—factors identified as playing an important role in language learning in SLA research (Krashen 1985; Long 1985). Self-contained CD-ROMs incorporating multimedia activities were perceived as useful tools for the support of individualized learning and the development of learner autonomy as they encourage learners to take responsibility for their own learning (Brett 1998). Moreover, by presenting a wide range of authentic materials in an accessible manner, multimedia CD-ROMs represented an advance over the simple text-based activities of the mainframe era and as such appeared to provide enhanced opportunities for language learning (Hagen 1995). As multimedia technologies continued to evolve, large numbers of CALL CD-ROMs were produced particularly during the 1990s. This phenomenon led researchers to examine the use of multimedia CD-ROMs in learner-based studies. A number of beneficial aspects of the use of multimedia CD-ROMs in CALL are reported in the literature. Research has shown CD-ROMs that provide annotations may enhance retention of new vocabulary (Chun and Plass 1996). Studies indicate that the use of CD-ROMs may enhance listening comprehension (Brett 1997) and improve grammar knowledge (Felix 2000). Researchers further draw attention to positive attitudes and enhanced motivation (Fleta et al. 1999).

As the above discussion shows, the potential of multimedia CD-ROMs is recognized in the CALL literature. However, the limitations of this technology have been the focus of discussion. A number of recurrent issues have been identified. Hlas and Vuksanovich (2007) explored teacher beliefs regarding the use of Spanish CD-ROMs in elementary schools in the United States. They claimed, on the basis of their findings, that many teachers did not make regular use of CD-ROMs in their classes as the products available were frequently perceived as being of poor quality and did not meet teacher needs (Hlas and Vuksanovich 2007, 775). They identified a lack of communication between educators and publishing companies as the main reason for resistance to CD-ROM use. The closed nature of many CD-ROMs where the content cannot be modified to meet the needs of specific learner groups was viewed as a major drawback (Chambers and Bax 2006, 475). The costs and long lead times necessary for the developing of high quality content are seen as limitations (Brett and Nash 1999, 19), as is the variable nature of product quality (Eastment 1996). The development of robust, widely accepted evaluation criteria is an important issue that remains unresolved (Murray and Barnes 1998). The limited nature of research on the use of multimedia in CALL has also been viewed as problematic (Plass and Jones 2005). Since the late 1990s, concerns had been raised regarding the limited influence of SLA research findings on the design of many multimedia-based learning activities (Chapelle 1998). In this context, the commercially driven nature of much CD-ROM development has been viewed with concern (Warschauer 1996, 8). The literature draws attention to the fact that while innovative work has been undertaken (Blake 1999), the activities in many CD-ROMs continue to revolve around language drills (Davies 2007), and do not provide opportunities for the communicative interaction and negotiation of meaning that are held to play an important role in SLA. Davies (1997, 33) observes that technical barriers and equipment availability still hamper large-scale CD-ROM use in many educational institutions. This researcher emphasizes that although CD-ROMs have long been viewed as representing a technology with potential in CALL, this potential has all too often not been fully realized. Although development work on multimedia use in CALL continues (Sydorenko 2010), this technology has now been superseded by Internet-based learning activities (Davies 2007).

Videoconferencing

The emergence of the Internet and World Wide Web in the 1990s represented a major advance in computer technologies and marked the beginning of a new era of development in CALL. For the first time, language educators had access to a range of accessible communication tools that enabled both synchronous and asynchronous communication over distance. Computer-mediated communication (henceforth CMC) was seen as a development with major implications (Warschauer and Kern 2000). The obvious potential of these tools to reduce traditional constraints on learning such as time and distance led to claims that network-based communication technologies would revolutionize language education (Warschauer, Turbee, and Roberts 1996). Of these new innovations, videoconferencing appeared particularly promising (Andrews 1994; Wang 2004; Zähner, Fauverge, and Wong 2000). By bringing together real-time communication technologies such as video, text chat, and interactive whiteboards, these tools offered a means to overcome a major drawback that had been identified in multimedia CD-ROMs, namely, the absence of meaningful communicative interaction (Hampel 2003). Videoconferencing provides exposure not only to comprehensible input from peers, but also opportunities to engage in negotiation of meaning (Gass and Varonis 1994) involving the production of comprehensible target language (henceforth TL), a process that is claimed to support acquisition by raising learner awareness (Swain 1985). This technology facilitates international projects where learners have access to diverse groups of peers and native speakers located overseas, providing opportunities to develop communicative competence and intercultural knowledge (O’Dowd 2000). From the mid 1990s onward researchers and practitioners were quick to explore the use of conferencing tools that utilized real-time video communication in a range of studies. A number of benefits of participation in videoconferencing are identified in the literature. Researchers claim that videoconferencing is enjoyable, may increase learner confidence and motivation (McAndrew, Foubister, and Mayes 1996). Research indicates that the use of this technology may support active collaboration involving TL dialogue (Wong and Fauverge 1999) and in the case of international projects enhances knowledge of the TL culture (O’Dowd 2000). There is also limited evidence that negotiation of meaning occurs (Wang 2006).

The literature on the use of videoconferencing in CALL, while acknowledging possible benefits, draws attention to a number of issues associated with its use. Development costs, advanced hardware, and network infrastructure requirements are identified as potential barriers to use (Hampel 2003; Perkins 1999). Although advances in technology have reduced costs in recent years (Ciekanski and Chanier 2008), training and support needs remain significant constraints that act to restrict the widespread implementation of videoconferencing in many language programs (Wang 2004). Though reliability is improving, videoconferencing remains a technology that is challenging to implement in many educational institutions. The online nature of the communication in videoconferencing where there can be delays between messages due to bandwidth issues and the accompanying reduction in communication cues can lead to difficulties (Hampel 2003, 30). These factors have been identified as having the potential to hamper group discussion (Goodfellow et al. 1996). User errors caused by limited computer skills and difficulties managing multimodal interfaces represent additional problems (Hampel and Hauck 2004). The limited nature of the research in this area compared to other types of CMC is noteworthy (Wang 2004). Although research continues (Jauregi and Bañados 2008) the majority of studies suggest that due to the considerable logistical and technical difficulties encountered in implementing large-scale projects, video conferencing is a tool best utilized for small group interaction and individual tutoring (Buckett, Stringer, and Datta 1999; O’Dowd 2000).

Assimilating New Technologies in CALL: Opportunities and Issues

The prior discussion has shown that advances in computer technologies have stimulated a wide range of projects and research work. In examining this work, a number of recurrent themes become apparent. The following discussion focuses on exploring these themes in greater detail.

False Dawn Phenomenon

A noteworthy feature of the application of new computer technologies in CALL is the repeated tendency to view each new innovation as a potential breakthrough when it emerges (Kohn 1995; Warschauer, Turbee, and Roberts 1996). This trend is frequently accompanied by the appearance of sweeping claims that are made on the basis of rather limited evidence (Biber 1992; Huh and Hu 2005). Although there are researchers who advocate a more cautious approach (Chapelle 1997; Davies 2007), this phenomenon nonetheless remains a striking feature of the literature down to the present and demonstrates the pervasive influence of the belief that technological advances are in themselves beneficial (Stockwell 2007). As was observed previously, the PLATO project was seen initially as highly significant. However, promising development work was not continued as the system was overtaken by technological change. Multimedia CD-ROMs and videoconferencing tools are further examples of technologies that were perceived as significant innovations when they first emerged. This discussion emphasizes that although some valuable research work has been conducted that draws attention to the potential of these technologies, there has been at best only limited follow-up. Indeed the above technologies, though still in use, are now regarded as either largely obsolete or occupying only niche areas. As Davies (1997, 2007) has warned repeatedly, technocentric thinking remains influential. This situation has acted to restrain the development of a balanced and critical approach to the assimilation of new technologies that is necessary for systematic and effective development in CALL. There is a need to move beyond the wow factor (Murray and Barnes 1998) if innovations with potential, such as computer games, are to be implemented and researched effectively in the future.

The Persistence of Barriers to Effective Technology Implementation

This discussion draws attention to another factor that is often overlooked in the literature, namely, the persistence of barriers to the effective application of technological advances in CALL (Levy and Stockwell 2006). The issue of funding was noted in the discussion of the PLATO project. The general absence of sustained funding in many institutions contributes to a situation where large-scale projects are not pursued, and even when valuable early work is undertaken it is frequently not followed up, hampering future development work. As the discussion on CD-ROMs shows, high production costs have led to a situation where commercial interests have driven development with unfortunate consequences for product quality (Warschauer 1996). Furthermore, considerable institutional barriers to technology implementation still exist in many educational contexts (Egbert, Paulus, and Nakamichi 2002; Garrett 2009). The discussion of videoconferencing draws attention to a further issue: Many educational institutions frequently lack the advanced network infrastructure, equipment, and support staff necessary for implementation of the latest technologies on a significant scale. Moreover, the successful implementation of new technologies requires the cooperation of teachers (Timuçin 2006). The issue of negative teacher attitudes toward the use of new computer technologies (Fernández Carballo-Calero 2001), and the need for teacher training (Moore, Morales, and Carel 1998), are further long-running issues that are frequently downplayed in the CALL literature. As this discussion has shown, teacher attitudes remain an important influence on the effective implementation of new innovations (Chambers and Bax 2006; Hlas and Vuksanovich 2007; Lam 2000). The lack of widespread teacher training in the use of CALL (Kessler 2007) perhaps explains the fact that the above issues remain constants in the literature. Finally, the relentless pace of technological change may constitute a barrier to the effective use of new technology in CALL (Levy 1997).

The Limited Influence of SLA Theory on CALL Research

The overview of the assimilation of new technologies conducted in this chapter draws attention to an important issue that requires acknowledgment in any assessment of new innovations in CALL, namely, the lack of any generally accepted theoretical framework to guide development work (Hubbard 2009, 5; Levy 2000, 170). However, this situation need not hamper research in CALL. As Gutierrez observes, systematic collaboration between researchers, and a theory-based approach to the application of new innovations in CALL remain essential if progress is to be made:

Collaboration among second language teachers, software designers, and researchers, implies a cyclical process of constant research, design, implementation, and evaluation . . . this process should have its conceptual roots in sound second language acquisition theories and research, and should eventually also throw light upon these theories in order to gain a deeper understanding of language, its acquisition, and how language can be optimized in the classroom. (Gutierrez 2003, 94)

Huh and Hu identify important advantages of drawing on SLA theory as a means to inform research in CALL:

It is important for CALL researchers to start with an SLA foundation and carry it through the study to the conclusion. Sound theoretical support helps researchers to generalize, validate, and apply their findings. (Huh and Hu 2005, 12)

Although the limited influence of SLA theory on the field of language education has been noted in the literature (Levy and Stockwell 2006), this phenomenon appears particularly acute in the case of CALL. Egbert (2005, 3) has identified this situation as hindering coherent development work:

We have been thinking about ideas in this chapter and book over the last several years because we have looked into the computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research and have seen something is amiss. For example, although fine studies have been conducted on some topics, the research seems to be scattered across a wide area that a specific picture of what CALL is and does has not emerged. Also, the excitement, rigor, and applicability found in other areas of education research seem to be missing in CALL. Discussing why that might be, we discovered the lack of a coherent understanding of CALL; a tendency to...