Global Sport-for-Development

Critical Perspectives

Daryl Adair, N. Schulenkorf

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9781137289629
• eBook ISBN: 9781137289636
• Subtopic: Politics

This book provides a critical approach to sport-for-development, acknowledging the potential of this growing field but emphasising challenges, problems and limitations – particularly if programs are not adequately planned, delivered or monitored.

Part I

Global Sport-for-Development: Critical Perspectives

1

Sport-for-Development: The Emergence and Growth of a New Genre

Nico Schulenkorf and Daryl Adair

Over the last decade, the field of sport-for-development (S4D) has received significant attention from both practitioners and academics around the world. Where at the beginning of the 21st century it was difficult to find projects that used sport as a strategic vehicle for positive social, health and economic change, the number of S4D initiatives that aim to make a difference in disadvantaged communities has since grown substantially. One explanation for this escalation is the strong political support for a ‘movement’ that combines sport associations, aid agencies, development bodies, sponsoring organisations and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) under a single umbrella.

The creation of the United Nations Office for Sport for Development and Peace (UNOSDP) in 2001 was a significant step towards official recognition and legitimacy for S4D. Subsequent assertions, such as the Magglingen Declaration in 2003 and the United Nation’s International Year of Sport and Physical Education in 2005, further raised awareness of S4D as a philosophy underpinning aspirations for positive change. Overall, the increased recognition of potential social, health and economic values of S4D quickly led to the establishment of thousands of local and international development projects supported and/or implemented by sport associations, aid agencies and funding bodies. Concurrently, a number of mainstream NGOs have incorporated sport as a vehicle through which to pursue their own development objectives.

Fundamentally, S4D aims to engage people from disadvantaged communities in physical activity projects that have an overarching aim of achieving various social, cultural, physical, economic or health-related outcomes. S4D therefore goes beyond traditional forms of sport development and sport participation for its own sake. From a S4D perspective, sport is a conduit rather than an end in itself. While publications on sport development (see, e.g. Bloyce and Smith, 2009; Collins, 2010; Girginov, 2008; Houlihan and White, 2002; Hylton and Bramham, 2008) have dwelt briefly on the S4D genre as part of the overall debate about community participation, engagement and inclusion in sport, S4D scholars instead focus on sport projects that are specifically designed to meet the needs of disadvantaged communities and/or development settings. For example, they have conducted studies into an array of pro-social programme areas including sport for socio-economic development (Kobayashi et al., in press), social change and identity building (Schulenkorf, 2010b; Vermeulen and Verweel, 2009), trauma relief (Gschwend and Selvaranju, 2007; Kunz, 2009), gender equality (Meier and Saavedra, 2009; Saavedra, 2009), health improvement (Banda et al., 2008; Webb, 2004), peace and reconciliation (Gasser and Levinsen, 2004; Schulenkorf, 2010a; Stidder and Haasner, 2007; Sugden, 2006) and local capacity building (Wright, 2009).

This flurry of activity has further extended to a number of books on the topic of S4D (Banda et al., 2008; Bennett an Gilbert, 2012; Coalter, 2007, 2013; Darnell, 2012; Hanrahan and Schinke, 2012). Of particular relevance for the present volume is the Levermore and Beacom-edited book Sport and International Development, published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2009. It was the first volume to explicitly offer conceptual discussions about both sport development and sport ‘in’ development at the outset, with associated case studies presented thereafter. The book intelligently addresses a range of challenges for the deployment of sport in international development contexts, taking in social justice issues like disability, gender and the rights of children. We trust that Global Sport-for-Development provides an ideal complement to this text, and extends the discussion to take on additional themes, environments and contexts, such as health issues in Pacific Island nations, drug-diversion programmes in Brazil and interfaith initiatives in the Middle East. However, there is such a vast array of S4D projects, programmes and approaches, that these two key Palgrave texts cannot possibly accommodate the whole field.

Overall, the depth and rigour of academic research into the efficacy and longevity of S4D programmes has improved over the past decade; one key reason is that policymakers and funding bodies are now keen to establish whether resources provided are actually bringing about promised S4D impacts and sustainable outcomes. This has its own challenges: many S4D programmes are too poorly funded to allow for adequate monitoring and evaluation (M&E), while some programme-funding bodies are so anxious for swift reporting of progress that the efficacy of S4D impacts are assessed prematurely. Albert Einstein¹ once opined that ‘Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be counted.’ The widespread insistence on measurement, especially in contexts where qualitative research is most often conducted, presents difficulties for both S4D scholars and practitioners, particularly in environments where there is limited infrastructure and meagre resources.

Background to Global Sport-for-Development

Some stakeholders within S4D, whether out of naivety or by design, are overly optimistic about the aims and efficacy of the programmes they either fund or deliver. Even a scant review of the Internet reveals organisations that triumphally profess to have made substantial differences to disadvantaged communities, yet their evangelical zeal does not seem to correlate with the actual impact of trumpeted programmes. They are, however, always on the lookout for donations and funding for such development projects. Importantly, such proponents of S4D often take the view that they know ‘what is best’ for disadvantaged communities and, because of that supposedly enlightened perspective, feel entitled and even compelled to ‘come to the rescue’ of those less fortunate. Whether well intentioned or misguided, such ethnocentric proponents of S4D are hardly equipped to facilitate changes that are meaningful to local communities. Rather than inept or cavalier exponents, S4D needs champions who drive programmes in concert with local stakeholders, and who seek to empower such people towards improved self-sufficiency (Coalter, 2010; Darnell, 2012; Schulenkorf, 2012).

In contrast to numerous NGO publications about S4D, many of which feature idealistic accounts of sport as a magic bullet to solve the ills of humanity, Global Sport-for-Development was conceived to encourage questioning of, and critical engagement with, the taken-for-granted assumptions and practices underlying this genre. In other words, while acknowledging the potential of S4D, the book emphasises its challenges, problems and limitations – particularly if programmes are not adequately planned, delivered or monitored. In this sense the book features both critical theory and reflective praxis, and is therefore intended to be useful to both academics and practitioners. It is also an effort to call into question what Fred Coalter has called the ‘mythopoeic status’ (Coalter, 2010: 296) of sport and the development genre that has evolved around it.

There are some definitional aspects to the field of S4D that warrant discussion and clarification in relation to this book. First, over the years a number of different descriptors and abbreviations have been used for the sport-for-development (and peace) sector, including SFD, S4D, SiD, S&D, SFDP and SDP. For us, the term sport-for-development (and its abbreviation S4D) encompasses all aspects of the genre, including sport programmes designed for particular social, cultural, educational, health, equity and economic purposes, as well as a contribution to reconciliation and peace. We see no reason for separating or highlighting ‘peace’ as an extra descriptor to the S4D term; for us, it forms an integral part of what S4D is all about. However, we ascertained that other authors had reasons for choosing one term and abbreviation over another; for example, some people engaged in projects that focus specifically on intergroup relations and reconciliation issues justifiably use ‘sport for development and peace’ in line with the previously mentioned UNOSDP. Therefore, we decided against standardising terminology in this book.

Similar definitional contention exists regarding places that have traditionally been described as ‘developing countries’. While the World Bank and the World Health Organisation use the term ‘low and middle income countries’, others use the expression ‘Majority World’ or ‘Third World’ (see the academic journal Third World Quarterly). Again others categorise power in terms of ‘Global North’ and ‘Global South’ divides (see, e.g. Levermore and Beacom, 2009). While we are comfortable with either of the first two terms, we believe that the latter does not resonate well in a global context. In particular, the term ‘Global South’ may be more or less relevant when investigating projects in Africa or Latin America; however, its connotations do not apply to projects and research conducted in an Australian or New Zealand context. Readers will notice that, notwithstanding this overview of definitions, terms and characteristics of S4D, the authors in the chapters that follow have applied their own particular interpretations and nuances to the field.

Structure of Global Sport-for-Development

The book is divided into two separate but interdependent sections. First, the ‘Framework’ section – Chapters 2–5 – provides a critical conceptual background to S4D. These chapters are written by some of the most renowned scholars in the field of S4D, namely Fred Coalter, John Sugden, Richard Giulianotti, Gary Armstrong, Simon Darnell and Lindsay Hayhurst. Each of these authors has extensive academic influence and practical experience in this field; they provided scene-setting essays that are germinal to an understanding of the complexity of S4D. Second, Chapters 6–11 in the ‘From the Field’ section focus on practical initiatives, outcomes, challenges and limitations of local, governmental and corporate programmes in developing nation contexts. By doing so, the chapters also examine the crucial power dynamics that underpin interventions from agencies and programmes that are often conceived in the developed world.

Importantly, all contributors to this book have significant experience in S4D praxis and research in low- and middle-income countries. While some of them are local to the country and programme under investigation, others have an established track record of involvement with particular development organisations and/or projects. All authors were asked to critically reflect upon how, during the 21st century, in culturally and ethnically diverse societies, S4D projects might be better delivered through context-rich and flexible approaches to the diverse needs and well-being of disadvantaged communities. This typically involves alliances of stakeholders – external and internal – and an appreciation of the socio-cultural, economic and political nuances of localised S4D scenarios. However, as will be seen in the different contributions provided, the planning, implementation and evaluation stages of sport projects have provided practitioners and academics with a variety of challenges and limitations.

In this first chapter we have provided our rationale for compiling a book on critical perspectives on global sport-for-development and the impetus for undertaking this task. We have briefly surveyed the S4D field, evaluated its origins and evolution. We pinpointed key problems for the genre, both in terms of theory and praxis, and established how this book – and its constituent chapters – proposes to address these shortcomings. Our focus is on explaining the significance of critical theory informing practice, and of practice informing scholarship. In short, the first chapter highlights the value of conceptual rigour underlying S4D programme goals, planning and delivery, and the subsequent imperative for monitoring, evaluation and critical reflection thereafter. In this view, S4D is not a linear and abrupt process; instead, it requires reflexivity and the re-engagement of different stakeholders over time.

In Chapter 2, Richard Giulianotti and Gary Armstrong outline the benefits and challenges of critical and comparative research in S4D. They argue that social scientific analysis and understanding of the S4D sector needs to be underpinned by practical fieldwork as well as rigorous and reflexive analysis. Furthermore, their chapter provides an overview of the contemporary institutionalisation and cultural underpinnings of S4D. The authors build on their extensive global fieldwork to discuss some of the key cultural, social, political, methodological and operational challenges that confront S4D projects and initiatives. In Chapter 3, Simon Darnell and Lyndsay Hayhurst remind us that the global S4D sector is inextricably linked to issues of power and the legacies of European colonisation. Building on feminist post-colonial theory, the authors highlight the need to understand neo-liberal power, informed resistance and knowledge production, each being critical to the prospect of a paradigm shift in S4D wherein locals have the opportunity to shape their own destinies.

In Chapter 4, Fred Coalter offers a critical perspective of S4D, summarising it acerbically as ‘pessimism of the intellect, optimism of the will’. Coalter draws on his extensive experience in Africa and India to reveal what he describes as essentialist, mythical and neo-liberal assumptions underpinning the rhetoric of the genre. He then argues for a realist approach to understanding both context and process in S4D, a strategy that is intended to permit a more systemat...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Part I Global Sport-for-Development: Critical Perspectives
• Part II Framework
• Part III From the Field
• Part IV Conclusions
• Index