Stigmas, Work and Organizations

S. Bruce Thomson, Gina Grandy, S. Bruce Thomson, Gina Grandy

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9781137575715
• eBook ISBN: 9781137564764
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Human Resource Management
• Index: Business

This book brings together current research on stigma, stigma management, and stigma theory as applied to business and management at the micro, meso, and macro levels. It provides a comprehensive perspective of the literature on stigmas and is relevant to those working in organizational behavior, human resource management, and management studies more broadly.  The book includes chapters covering topics at the individual level (e.g., religious belief, illness, obesity, and sexual preference), occupational level (e.g., healthcare workers, garbage collectors, butchers, medical doctors), and organizational level (e.g., organizational image, multinational organizations). It offers readers a truly international perspective on this growing area of study.

© The Author(s) 2018

S. Bruce Thomson and Gina Grandy (eds.)Stigmas, Work and Organizations Palgrave Explorations in Workplace Stigmahttps://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56476-4_1

Begin Abstract

1. Introduction

S. Bruce Thomson¹ and Gina Grandy²

(1)

MacEwan University, Edmonton, AB, Canada

(2)

University of Regina, Regina, SK, Canada

S. Bruce Thomson (Corresponding author)

Gina Grandy

End Abstract

Introduction

Sociologist Irving Goffman introduced stigma theory in 1963 describing stigma as an individual trait that elicits negative responses from social interactions. Ragins (2008) defined individual based stigmas as “individual attributes that are viewed as personal flaws within a social context” (p. 196). The use of stigma theory has expanded beyond sociology to application in business and organizational studies. Research has documented that stigmatization in the working environment has wide-ranging implications beyond the individual. Stigma and stigmatization occurs and has implications at the individual level (micro), occupational or group level (meso), and at the organizational level (macro). This book offers a comprehensive perspective by bringing together papers written by academics in various areas and levels related to stigma, stigma management, and stigma theory. The book includes chapters covering topics at the individual level (e.g., disability , illness, obesity, and sexual preference ), occupational level (e.g., healthcare workers, garbage collectors, butchers, medical doctors), and organizational level (e.g., multinational organizations). The content is internationally relevant, covering research from Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Australia , and China .

Stigmas are physical marks, attributes, or characteristics that through social interaction are regarded as flawed, deviant, or inferior (Cusack, Jack, & Kavanagh, 2003; Grandy, 2008; Ragins, 2008) . Stigma is a threat to one’s identity ; in relations to and with others, stigma ‘marks’ and can discredit and devalue the self. We are identified by our group membership, status , or categorizations, and stigma serves to construct difference (Clair, Beatty, & MacLean, 2005; Lips-Wiersma & Mills, 2002). Perceptions of stigma are context dependent and can change over time (Dick, 2005; Ragins, 2008). In other words, stigmas are defined within the culture ; hence, they are “collectively defined and recognized” (Clair et al., 2005: 81). This concept of ‘context dependency’ underlines the importance of studying stigmas in and of the workplace. The world of business has changed. No longer do we or can we survive by doing business in one isolated environment. Organizations, regardless of their location, operate within a context. To further enhance the need for understanding of different contexts/environments is the ever-increasing diversity of the workforce in developed and developing nations, thus increasing the likelihood of being exposed to stigmatization .

Revealing a stigmatizing identity opens the stigmatized party (individual, group, or organization) up to scrutiny and the stigma becomes the perceived primary characteristic leading to questions of self-worth , stereotyping, discrimination , and bias . The end result of stereotyping , discrimination , and bias is that many stigmatized groups suffer loss of status, economic problems, and limited opportunities (Beatty & Joffe, 2006; Clair et al., 2005; Ragins, 2004, 2008). In this way, the stigmatized party who is stigmatized become viewed, as Goffman (1963) refers to them, as spoiled identities . Further, the pervasiveness of stigma is such that the taint deriving from a physical mark, characteristic, event, or occupational category may ‘stick’ or remain even after the ‘mark’ is removed (Bergman & Chalkley, 2007; Grandy & Mavin, 2014).

The decision to disclose or reveal a stigmatizing identity is a complicated process which is based on several factors (Clair et al., 2005; Ragins, 2004, 2008). Findings of several studies confirm that disclosure is based on a person to person basis, where trust and expected reaction are the basis of decision making (Ragins, Cornwell, & Miller, 2003; Weiner, Perry, & Magnusson, 1988).

At the occupational level, the stigma associated with a job is transferred to the individual so that over time the individual is seen to personify the work (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999). This stream of research refers to such work as ‘dirty work’, originally coined by Hughes (1958) and popularized in management research by Ashforth and Kreiner (1999). The range of jobs considered stigmatized or dirty work is diverse (e.g., bill collectors , dentists , funeral directors , managerial work , taxi drivers , sex workers ) and work can be considered physically, morally, socially, and/or emotionally tainted (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999; McMurray & Ward, 2014; Rivera, 2015). Further, Kreiner, Ashforth, and Sluss (2006) note that all occupations can be considered stigmatized to some extent, based upon the breadth and depth of stigmas associated with occupational tasks. The decision to reveal or conceal if one is a ‘dirty worker’ is therefore restricted to relationships outside of work (e.g., we can choose to tell people outside of work what we do for paid work or not). This can cause considerable anxiety regarding decisions about whether or not to disclose what one does for paid work. Moreover, those who decide to conceal such a stigma may still experience ongoing concern about the risks of encountering someone at work known to them, thereby removing the choice to disclose or not. Indeed, some research has revealed that some dirty workers take pride in their work (e.g., Chiappetta-Swanson, 2005) and research in management has begun to explore various other implications for those performing stigmatized work including gender , identity , culture , group dynamics, and emotions.

Stigmas, Work, and Organizations brings together the current research on stigmas in the organizational environment at three different levels. Since the late 1980s academics in the field of business studies have begun to apply stigma theory at the individual, occupational (e.g., groups), and organizational levels. To date the research has been scattered across various fields of organizational behavior, human resource management, or management studies. The book brings these studies together to form a holistic view of the body of literature investigating stigmas in the organizational environment. We believe doing so may open other possibilities of collaborative research to apply stigma theory to the organizational environment and advance our understanding.

Overview of the Book

Part I Stigma at the Micro Level

The first part of the book focuses on the micro or individual level of stigmas at work. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 delve into ‘physical’ considerations that lead to stigmatization and Chap. 5 deals with ‘non-physical’ traits. Chapter 2, by Watson, Levit, and Lavack, discusses obesity as a stigmatizing characteristic. The authors argue that the rate of obesity is increasing on a global scale. Drawing upon an extensive source of research, they conclude that obesity is viewed as a controllable personal flaw, which in turn drives weight discrimination in the workplace. This leads to bias in decisions around hiring, assignments, and career advancement. Their chapter takes an in-depth view of obesity stigma and covers such topics as, pervasiveness, false assumptions, and reducing th...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Frontmatter
• 1. Introduction
• 1. Stigma at the Individual/Micro Level
• 2. Stigma at the Occupational/Meso Level
• 3. Stigma at the Organization/Macro Level
• Backmatter