The traditionally predominant role of the state in the development and implementation of intercultural education is reflected in most education systems around the world. However, the centrality of the nation-state has diminished over the past decade due to a wide range of new socio-cultural, political and economic phenomena. Globalisation, Europeanisation, modernisation and global recession are but a few of the contributory factors often cited. The main consequences of these developments have only begun to unfold and continue to be debated by policy-makers, academics and educators. However, it is widely accepted that global socio-political and economic developments have allowed supranational institutions, functioning across nation-states rather than within them, to assume control over many state functions with regards to policy development and implementation. Yet much remains unknown (and under-researched) about the impact of these still-nascent developments in the realm of intercultural education.
Sutton (2005: 97) points out that âthe âepochalâ dimensions of globalisation, such as wide-scale human migration and intensification of global communication, have complicated social identities within many nations and therefore stimulated public debate on how pluralism is recognised in the curriculum and pedagogy in national school systemsâ. Gibson (2010), however, contends that as intercultural education has not yet critically âreadâ and responded to the effects of globalisation, educational policies around the globe still perpetuate various forms of injustice. Although the area of intercultural education, in general, has been widely researched, there is a shortage of published research examining the intersection of globalisation and intercultural education. To support social cohesion in modern societies, education research should examine issues of citizenship, democracy and intercultural education under the lens of globalisation. After all, âthroughout different countries, contexts and education systems, multiculturalism as a normative program, as well as intercultural education as a diversity-driven pedagogical strategy, have become truly global throughout the last decadesâ (Palaiologou and Dietz 2012: 4).
Aiming to develop a critical consensus, we draw upon the proposition arguing for a âa multitude of globalizations, ranging from cultural and technological exchange to neo-liberal expansion to increased transnational migrationsâ (Gibson 2010: 129). Most studies examining the intersection of intercultural education and globalisation briefly refer to the âsuper-diversityâ resulting from globalisation and the cultural hybridity resulting from global migrations, cultural exchange and technological advancements. Gibson argues, however, that previous literature has not acknowledged the ways in which global and national actors, ranging from international and national institutions to school actors (including head-teachers, teachers and students), âare reading the worldâ of globalisation (Gibson 2010: 129) to promote social and educational equity and cross-cultural exchange. In an effort to address this gap, we examine intercultural education policy through a framework that extends beyond the national level, analysing the changing dynamics of intercultural education policy and its implementation within the context of globalisation.
To this end, we present in this book a conceptual and theoretical framework to analyse the meanings and mechanisms of intercultural education beyond national states and national education systems by setting the examination of intercultural education in a globalised context. We examine the following dimensions of intercultural education: the contemporary reality, ideology, policy development, and practical implementation. Therefore, the first task of this book is to explore three distinct questions. Firstly, in which ways does globalisationâas the contemporary realityâinfluence the development of intercultural education? Secondly, what are the prevailing ideologies of intercultural education in the contemporary context of globalisation? And thirdly, how can the processes of the development, adoption and implementation (and their interrelationship) of intercultural education policy be theorised?
It is a frequent observation that âdespite international shifts towards common standards such as the ones promoted by the Council of Europe, the United Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture (UNESCO) or the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), school structures, curricula, teacher training, classroom strategies and interactions, as well as evaluation cultures, are an integral part of the nation-states domain of educational policiesâ (Palaiologou and Dietz 2012: 1). This is why in this book we seek to expand the examination of intercultural education from a narrow to a broader focus of policy analysis by establishing a wider lens of policy investigation that implies not only examination of policy enactments, but also examination of the intentions, actions and inactions of stakeholders involved in the policy process.
Traditionally, there have been two camps of interculturalists: (a) the macro-analysts of state-derived intercultural policy, and (b) the micro-analysts of intercultural school and classroom practices. Arguably, whilst the role of human agency has been neglected by the first camp, the role of the national and the supranational state has been disregarded by the second. In order to bridge this gap, this book proposes a macro-micro integration project to further investigate how the macro-structures of the supranational and the national state can shape the socio-political environment of intercultural policy. Agency and the powerful role of individual actors are also examined at the macro- and micro-levels. The book then examines how the educational policy derived from the wider socio-political environment can be mediated through the micro-level of the school.
The chapters of this book are divided into the following two parts: âGlobalising Intercultural Education: Politics, Policy-Making and Implementationâ and âGlobalising Intercultural Education: Findings from Previous and Current Researchâ. In Part I, we attempt to theorise the notions of globalisation and intercultural education and to build a conceptual framework for education policy analysis in a globalised context. We also set out to examine the development of global policies of intercultural education, along with their adoption and implementation at the national levels. Our central argument is that as policies for intercultural education are authoritative allocations of values, educational researchers should link the micro-politics of actorsâ agency and personal relations to a systemic analysis of power structures. To this end, policy analysis for intercultural education should also provide insight into âthe lowest level of implementation [âŠ] up through the policy structure, examining the decisions that each level makes, the incentive structures that operate on the targets of the policy, and bargaining relationships among actors at various levels of the implementation processâ (Goertz 2006: 705). Thus, the second part of the book aims to substantiate the aforementioned argument by referencing previous and our own recent research carried out in the field. By using Cyprus as our âcaseâ, we aim to show the importance of researching the trajectory of education policies for intercultural education from the macro-level of the state (both supranational and national) to the micro-level of the school. Below, we provide a synopsis of the book.
Part I: Globalising Intercultural Education: Politics, Policy-Making and Implementation
In Chap. 2 , Theorising Globalisation in Education, theories of new sociological institutionalism are used to examine the impact of globalisation on education policy. The use of globalisation theories facilitates examination of what is globalised and how much change has been brought about by globalisation. Moreover, the chapter examines the mechanisms through which supranational institutions may influence national education policies. Such mechanisms include imposition, harmonisation, dissemination, standardisation and installing interdependence. Lastly, the chapter examines the relationship between globalisation and Europeanisation, specifying the exact mechanisms through which Europeanisation occurs. References are made to the mechanisms of coercion, mimetism, other framing mechanisms and elite learning.
Chapter 3 focuses on the âConceptions of Intercultural Education from around the Globeâ. Although the ability for direct state intervention has been reduced, the literature overturns the âmyth of a powerless stateâ Weiss (1998: 1), which has abandoned its capacity for policy development and implementation to the supranational arena. Intercultural education is given different institutional meanings in different states according to the national and local political culture. Therefore, this chapter elaborates on international literature to examine the role and the character of the state in the development of national policies of intercultural education. The chapter critically presents and discusses the following state-oriented models of intercultural education: the Republic, the Liberal State, the Federation of Communities, and the Plural State. Lastly, the chapter illustrates the implications of these state-oriented models of intercultural education for school cultures and teaching practices.
Chapter 4 presents âConceptions of Education Policy for Intercultural Educationâ, with the aim of developing a framework for fostering macro-micro integration. The chapter conceptualises the notion of policy by drawing upon ongoing debates on policy analysis and policy sociology. It seeks to identify the actors that operate within each level of analysis, namely the macro-, meso- and micro-levels, and to examine how their values and interests with regard to particular policies are formed. The chapter also examines how various state, school and classroom actors may exert influence on the meanings and mechanisms of intercultural education policy. Agency and the powerful role of individual actors are also examined at the macro-level. Lastly, the chapter discusses how the educational policy derived from the wider socio-political environment can be mediated through the meso- and micro-levels. The chapter draws upon existing empirical and theoretical literature on policy implementation, whilst also considering how policy formulation and implementation are linked as two facets of the policy process.
Chapter 5 discusses âThe Influence of Supranational Institutions on Policy Development for Intercultural Educationâ. In order to examine the nexus between globalisation and intercultural education, the chapter analyses global policy discourses, trends and conceptions developed by supranational institutions with regards to intercultural education. The selected international organisations (IOs) and European organisations (EOs) under examination are the United Nations (UN); the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO); the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD); the Council of Europe (CoE); and the European Union (EU).
Chapter 5 also examines the ways in which IOs and EOs exert influence on national policy agendas by focusing on the globalisation mechanisms they deploy. In analysing the mechanism of imposition, Chap. 5 examines the conventions, treaties, and covenants deployed by IOs and EOs to compel member states to adopt particular policies. Despite not having a mandatory character, declarations and recommendations are also encompassed in our debate. Moreover, the chapter discusses the outcomes of international conferences that have influenced the formation of globalised policies on intercultural education. Last but not least, our analysis incorporates reflections on the globalisation mechanisms of standardisation and interdependence.
Chapter 6 examines the processes of âAdopting and Implementing Globalised Policies for Intercultural Educationâ. To focus only on supranational influences on national educational policies for intercultural education would portray globalisation as a linear, inevitable and top-down process. Thus, this chapter aims to delineate the ways in which globalised ideologies for intercultural education are mediated by national histories, cultures and politics. Chapter 6 also examines the processes of translation and re-contextualisation, which are necessary for the adoption of supranational educational policies at the national level. To this end, the chapter analyses the socio-cultural and historical grounding within which policy debates for intercultural education occur. The adoption of globalised intercultural education policies and the definition of system-wide strategies are necessary, but not sufficient, conditions for the practice of intercultural education in schools. In real-life situations, many policies for intercultural education are never implemented or they are implemented poorly. Therefore, this chapter also aims to move the debate from policy development towards implementation by indicating the importance of researching the process of implementation of education policies for intercultural education at the micro-level of the school.
Part II: Globalising Intercultural Education: Findings from Previous and Current Research
Chapter 7 examines âThe Social-Justice Issue in Policy for Intercultural Education: From Decision-Making to Implementationâ. The chapter indicates the ways in which policies for intercultural education may legitimate social justice as an issue to be acted on in the phases of macro- and micro-implementation. Thus, it presents the ways in which action at the stages of administration, adoption and micro-implementation of policies for intercultural education may contribute or inhibit social justice. Intercultural education policies to promote social justice as active citizenship need to be successfully implemented, a goal which requires communication between the different levels of the school system. Chapter 7 also deals with the issue of policy slippage, which can sabotage the implementation of promising intercultural policies for social justice.
Chapter 8 focuses on the topic of âSchool Leadership for Intercultural Educationâ. The overarching purpose of this chapter is to examine the prospects of school leadership for the development of intercultural education. The chapter analyses how head-teachersâ perceptions of diversity influence their leadership roles regarding intercultural education. By using Cyprus as a case study, the chapter focuses on the ways in which Cypriot head-teac...