Spirituality and Sustainable Development

Rohana Ulluwishewa

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9781349480128, 9781137382757
• eBook ISBN: 9781137382764
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Development Economics
• Index: Social Sciences

Looking beyond the materialistic boundary of the conventional development paradigm, this book identifies our spiritual underdevelopment which is being reflected as self-centeredness and greed, as the root cause of conventional development's failure to alleviate poverty and inequality, achieve sustainability and deliver happiness to humanity.

Part I

What Is Spirituality?

1

Contemporary Views on Spirituality

Spirituality and religion

Spirituality literally means the state of being with spirit. The English word spirit has come from the Latin word spiritus, which means breath or that which gives life or vitality to a system. But it also means soul, courage, vigour and inner strength. The word spirit is used in different contexts, for example, group spirit and national spirit, referring to one’s sense of affiliation to a group or to a nation and one’s willingness to sacrifice personal gains for the well-being of the group, the community, the nation and the world. In spiritualism, in which it is believed the dead communicate with the living through a medium, the spirit means the soul of the dead. The term ‘spirit’ can also be regarded as being a ghost, manifestations of the spirit of a dead person. It may also refer to any being imagined as incorporeal or immaterial, such as a demon or deities. In philosophy, spirituality is often understood as a view opposite to materialism. Materialists generally hold that physical matter is the only reality and that everything, including thought, feeling, mind and will, can be explained in terms of matter and physical phenomena. Even consciousness is explained simply as an emergent phenomenon of the physical brain. Thomas Hobbes, a seventeenth-century philosopher, maintained that absolutely nothing exists except matter. In his view, if there is a God, he must have a physical body.

According to this view, there is nothing beyond the material world that we perceive through our senses. Materialists, therefore, believe that physical well-being and worldly possessions constitute the greatest good and highest value in life. There is no reason for them to value things which do not render material benefits. Their explanation of the universe is that everything is matter and energy, there is nothing else. This explanation of the universe is the foundation of modern science. On the other hand, spirituality can refer to an ultimate or immaterial reality which is believed to exist beyond the material. This reality is the spirit which we cannot directly experience through our physical senses, but it can be experienced through spiritual practices such as meditation, prayer, repetition of the divine name, contemplative reading of spiritual literature, devotional singing, charity, generosity and selfless service to others. Such practices are believed to enable a person to experience the spiritual reality and discover the essence of their being or the deepest value and meaning of his or her life. Spiritualizers are the people who believe in the existence of a spiritual reality and consider realization of this reality as the purpose of life. Therefore, they value certain things which do not render any material benefits but contribute to the realization of this ultimate reality.

The view that there is an ultimate reality or spirit beyond the material world is the foundation of all religions as well as most other belief systems. The original meaning of the word religion comes from religare, which means re-link or re-unite with the spirit, God or the ultimate reality. All major religions are based on the belief that there is a spirit or an immaterial and invisible power beyond the material world. This power is thought to control everything in the material world; punish evil and reward goodness. All major religions, except Buddhism, perceive this power as God, the primal entity which creates and sustains the material world, believing that nothing can come from nothing. Buddhism, on the other hand, does not accept the concept of God but acknowledges the existence of a certain form of power, or a moral law, beyond the material world which rewards goodness and punishes evil, and eventually guides individuals to correct themselves and become better human beings. Buddhism does not relate this moral law to any mystic power but to the law of cause and effect, known as the theory of karma. Many other belief systems outside the major religions, mainly the belief systems of indigenous and tribal communities, accept the existence of the spirit, or a mystic power, in all living, as well as non-living things, in the material world. They believe this power can control all material phenomena and advocate the performance of various rituals to seek its help to solve problems in their lives. In some communities there are specific individuals who are believed to have the power to communicate with the spirit and advise others as to what they should do to solve their problems.

All God-centred religions accept that the spirit, or God, is the perfect being, possessing higher qualities such as love, compassion, forgiveness, tolerance, empathy, understanding and wisdom, and that God has created humans in his/her image. These higher qualities, which represent the perfection within each human being, are often associated with the soul/spirit. In some of these religions, for example, mainstream Christianity and Islam, followers perceive God as an entity apart from the material world and dwelling in a mystic space, or heaven. The spiritual practices recommended by these religions are believed to help devotees to communicate with God and receive guidance. Developing a close relationship with God helps them acquire higher qualities and evolve spiritually. Others, such as Hinduism, perceive God as a spirit which is omnipresent, present in everything, everywhere and in every being, including plants, animals and human beings. However, animals are genetically ‘pre-programmed’ and therefore unable to discriminate right from wrong and act accordingly. On the other hand, humans, being the only species with the power and intelligence to discriminate, have the ability to look into themselves and identify their own faults, and so are able to change themselves and bring out their higher qualities from within. Buddhism, as a non-God-centred religion, does not accept the concept of God within or without but accepts the capacity of every human being to achieve perfection. Buddha is believed to be perfect in humanness, and ‘every man has within himself the potentiality of becoming a Buddha, if he so will it and endeavours’ (Rahula, 2006, p. 1). According to Buddhism, we suffer because of a false perception that we are an individual body, which has led to the concept of the ‘ego-self’. It is this false perception (sakkaya ditti in Pali) which prevents us from realizing our inner higher qualities. Buddha is revered for having shown the world a way to remove the ego-self. This is known as the ‘The Noble Eight-Fold Path’ and said to lead to the achievement of a peaceful and happy life. Thus, all major religions accept spiritual progress as the ultimate purpose of life, the achievement of which gives permanent happiness and peace.

Thus, though there seem to be many paths, if the teachings are practised genuinely, all religions lead to the same destination – spiritual progress. The differences among the religions are due primarily to varying cultural requirements and the environments and times in which these religions were originally promulgated. Therefore, spirituality can be seen as the thread that joins together the pearls of the world’s religions and as the essence that connects all human beings together. However, the capacity of religion to lead humankind to spiritual growth is now seriously challenged, as it is evident that religions can divide and lead people to conflict and violence. Spiritual growth, which may originally have been central to each religion, has in many cases been overridden by politics, rituals and cultural practices. Religion is now often seen as a part of the cultural identity of its believers rather than a pathway towards spiritual progress. Generally, after the deaths of the founders of spiritual pathways, their teachings were interpreted, organized and institutionalized as religions. Reinterpretations, distortions and inaccuracies created by the new religious leaders crept into the original teachings. As Whitmore (1997) stated in his book Need, Greed or Freedom:

Most religions were inspired by God or his messengers, but along the way, sometimes with good intentions, sometimes with bad ones, they become distorted, trivialized, and used by godless humans to control the masses, and for personal enrichment or ambition. (p. 157)

We now see many authorities claiming to be the most superior religion or the only right path, and labelling others as false. Such views cultivate religious egoism in the minds of their followers which enhances their tendency to conflict. Mitra (2007), an environmental scientist in the United States, stated in his book Science and Mankind:

Corruption, abuse and social ills become part and parcel of most religious organizations. Many priests and churches preferred money and political power over austerity and benevolence as the prophets had preached. Religious leaders and kings used religion as a mechanism for gaining political power, and unfortunately the conflicts between religious groups become a means of remembering God. The crusades, religious riots and terrorism based on religious fanaticism serve as some unfortunate examples. How could one believe in ‘turn the other cheek when slapped on one’ or abide by Dharma when their leaders did not practise what they preached? The reality on the ground has often been far from what was suggested in the holy books. Many lost faith in religions and spirituality leading to confusion in morality and ethics. (p. 149)

Spiritual but not religious

Disillusionment with religions has given rise to a new school of thought and new movements in the Western Christian world under the banner of ‘spiritual but not religious’ (Pigem, 2006). David Tacey (2004), an Australian academic and psychologist, in his book The Spirituality Revolution: The Emergence of Contemporary Spirituality called this ‘spiritual revolution’, which he perceives as a spontaneous movement in society, a new interest in the reality of spirit and its healing effects on life, health, community and well-being. He perceives the new concept of spirit without religion as ‘post-religious spirituality’ and ‘spirit without form’, and states:

Spirit without form is free and spontaneous but it is also invisible, and of ambiguous social value since it is difficult to harness something invisible for the common good. We live in a time in which form is discounted and spirit is highly valued. Form, we often hear, merely hides or disguises spirit. We have to tear away the form and allow spirit to be set free. (p. 31)

Whitmore (1997) identified several different categories of non-religious spiritualizers in the Western world. There are some who have become spiritual as a result of some personal experiences that might be called ‘spiritual awakening’. Such personal experiences have occurred unexpectedly, independent of religion. There are others who have been brought up with, or in a religion, but later they have ‘left the church’ and freed themselves from the constraints of the religious dogma that alienated them. They may still practice their religion privately but live unattached to any organized religion. Some Westerners have developed their own unique blend of Western and Eastern spiritual practices. They were brought up in the Christian tradition, but feel something is missing and are attracted to the Eastern concept of the God within. They may practise meditation and yoga. There is another group which is called New Age. They enter into spiritual life through mediums such as healing, the study of parapsychology, mythology, new physics, new biology, earth sciences, crop circles or even Unidentified Flying Objects. Whitmore (1997) pointed out that one could attain ‘spiritual awakening’ without having any connection to religion:

Sometimes through an unexpected revelation, sometimes through retreat and contemplation, sometimes through art, beauty or music and sometimes through a natural or synthesized hallucinogenic, people have discovered what they may variously describe as God, their soul, themselves, transcendence, inner peace or enlightenment. Such people might be said to have had a spiritual awakening, even if they have no connection past or present to any religion. (p. 160)

Most academics, philosophers, scientists and professionals who write about new spirituality appear to share the views of ‘post-religious spirituality’. Similar to most traditional religions, they too accept the fact that every person possesses the potential to acquire and develop higher qualities and become a better human being. With this they can live in harmony with society and the environment, without being a burden to society or the Earth, but be an integral part of both. They also accept the realization of the hidden capacity in all human beings as spirituality, and the spiritual progress in individuals as the ultimate solution for most problems humankind faces today. However, they do not trust traditional organized religions as guardians of spirituality.

Today’s non-religious spiritual writers keep a distance from religions and avoid religious and theological terminology such as God, Divinity, Soul and Spirit. Some writers, although not trusting organized religions, appear to trust their original teachings as pathways to spirituality. While some have looked into original teachings in order to find solutions for today’s destructive and unsustainable human behaviours and practices, some appreciate the value of certain spiritual tools prescribed by traditional religions, such as meditation, devotional singing, cultivation of love and generosity, and selfless service to humanity. Spirituality is now studied in numerous disciplines, such as new physics, new biology, organization and system theory, economics, ecology, ecopsychology, management and human relations and business studies.

The new concept of God/Spirit as perceived in the literature of new spirituality is different from that of the past when God was perceived either in some particular form or, at best, as a spirit-power controlling the universe. Some Europeans still have an image of God inherited from Michelangelo’s paintings: an old man reclining on a cloud creating Adam and directing things on Earth. God was also perceived to be an entity separated from the rest of the world. It was believed that God created matter and with matter, human beings, all other living and non-living things and the whole universe. According to the new concept, God is a formless spirit or a divine energy which is omnipresent. God is thought to be within and outside, within all living and non-living things as well as the outside world; the entire universe is filled with this divine energy. Thus, God is not separated from the material world but exists within all matter as the ‘subtler of the subtlest’, or spirit. According to the new perception of creation, God, the divine energy, became matter in the process of creation and acquired different forms. So, God is in the creation, not separated from it as previously believed.

The changed perception of God called for a new terminology. Some writers of new spirituality appear to be reluctant to use the word God for the supreme energy that they talk about. Instead of the word God, they use new terms such as Higher Forces (McDaniel, 2002; Orr, 2002), Transcendental Consciousness (Eijk, 1998), the Self (Page and Berkow, 1998), the Being or the Unmanifest (Tolle, 2004) and the Quantum Self (Zohar, 1990). Sathya Sai Baba,¹ a highly revered spiritual teacher who lived in the recent past in India, uses the term Constant Integrated Awareness (Madeleine Guillemin, 2009). It appears that the terms ‘Universal Consciousness’ and ‘Higher Self’ have increasingly been used in the modern literature of spirituality. Whatever the terms used, the most important fact that needs to be articulated is that it is the same divine energy that is present in everything in creation, in living beings, non-living things and the environment. The same inner reality within me is in others and in the environment too, and therefore, the prevailing dualism of me versus others has no rational basis any more. This kind of reasoning has led to the concepts of oneness, the unity in diversity and the universal brotherhood, the cornerstones of the modern discourse of spirituality.

Thus, God is within us, and the purpose of life as a human being is to realize this fact and to bring out the divine qualities hidden within us. Whitmore (1997), a practising psychotherapist, having described how participants in a therapy group have developed higher qualities such as support, caring, unselfishness, consideration, tolerance of differences and love, argued:

The fact that these qualities emerge from within the group and are not imposed or introduced by the leader suggests that they already reside within people, perhaps just waiting for an opportunity to be expressed. Is this what is meant by the God within? (p. 159)

Realizing the God within means realizing oneness with others, with the environment and with the universe. Though we are truly one, the fact that we identify ourselves with the physical body prevents us from realizing this oneness. All spiritual practices, religious as well as non-religious, aim at transcending this false identity. As one realizes one is not the physical body but the inner reality, one begins to see that ‘my self’ is also the ‘self’ of others and therefore all are one. With the realization of oneness with others, one becomes more sensitive to others’ needs and feelings which eventually make one less self-centred, less selfish, less greedy and more loving, more compassionate and more empathetic. It is after this that one begins to live in harmony with others and with the surrounding environment which eventually brings permanent happiness and peace. When viewed from this perspective, spirituality is the process of the realization of this inner reality and oneness. Spiritual progress leads towards this end.

Page and Berkow (1998) define spirituality as

A human characteristic which orientates the self towards ‘Self’ or that which transcends the identification of the self with partial realities formulated around self-definitions determined by past experience and conditioning. Human spirituality is a movement of the self towards its own deepest ground, its most fundamental nature. (p. 287)

While self refers to our false identity with the physical body or ego-self which is the sense of ‘I’, ‘Me’ and ‘We’, the ‘Self’ refers to the true reality within us, or what some modern writers call Ultimate Reality or Universal/Transcendental Consciousness. The ego-self is a product of the mind, which is conditioned by the culture in which one was born and grew up. The ego-self is biased towards ‘I’, which generates a sense of separateness from others and leads to the inner duality of me versus others. This leads to feelings of insecurity and fear, which in turn give rise to self-centredness and greed for material wealth and power as perceived sources of security. In contrast, the Self is independent of individuals’ cultures. It is characterized by seeing oneself as an equal part of a living web and expressing unconditional love as a foundation for living in harmony with other living beings and with the environment. With spiritual progress, one desires to transcend the ego-self and begins to experience the Self. One then gradually drops the lower qualities of the ego-self, and so emerges the higher qualities of the Self, such as wisdom, unconditional love, compassion, humility, forgiveness, non-violence, understanding and empathy. David Korten (1995), an economist, wrote:

I believe that we have access to an inner spiritual wisdom and that our collective salvation as a species depends, in part, on taping into this wisdom from which the institutions of modern science, the market, and even religion have deeply alienated us. Through this rediscovery we may achieve the creative balance between market and community, science and religion, and money and spirit that is essential to the creation and maintenance of healthy human societies. (p. 10)

Thus, spirituality, as perceived by spiritual, but non-religious people, is a rational and practical concept. Lok Sang Ho (20...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• Acknowledgements
• Foreword
• Introduction
• Part I: What Is Spirituality?
• Part II: Global Economic System from a Spiritual Perspective
• Part III: Development Without Spirituality
• Part IV: Towards a Spirituality-Based Development
• Epilogue: Changing Ourselves to Change the World
• Notes
• References
• Index