Psychology for Psychologists

A Problem Based Approach to Undergraduate Psychology Teaching

Stelios Georgiades, Alexia Papageorgiou, Maria Perdikogianni, Peter McCrorie

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN: 9781349570065, 9781137387646
• eBook ISBN: 9781137387653
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Educational Psychology

This book uses psychological theories and learning processes, such as Problem Based Learning (PBL), to provide a new approach for teaching psychology at an undergraduate level and prevent diminishing motivation. It creates a detailed example of a psychology degree using the PBL method and suggests how a week of the course could be planned.

1

The Development of Undergraduate Psychology Degrees and the Need for Change

Introduction

As is the case with any scientific discipline, the exploration of psychology from a historical perspective seems to be that of development and advancement of knowledge and research methodology. However, as Shiraev (2014) so eloquently described it, this history does not necessarily follow the path of a straight line. As a result, areas of psychological investigation throughout time were considered and explained from different perspectives (Fancher & Rutherford, 2012). For example, initially psychology was regarded as part of the wider philosophical enquiry into what constitutes behaviour; at other times, it was seen as the means by which to understand the possible interrelation between body and mind. Most contemporary references to psychology consider it to be the discipline that encompasses theories, knowledge and skills that can contribute to the better understanding of human behaviour (Gross, 2010). Moreover, it is considered as the specialty that, where applicable, may help with the modification or elimination of undesirable behaviours, thereby aiding in the establishment of desirable, functional and socially acceptable behaviours. These are the general beliefs and perceptions of psychology without delving into the expectations of more specialised fields of the discipline such as clinical, educational, occupational or forensic psychology, where the demands are usually more refined and specific. A relevant and important question that can be asked at this point, however, is whether current academic practices and psychology education at the undergraduate level meet these perceptions and expectations.

Contrary to these expectations, the most salient characteristic of undergraduate curricula today, as indicated in the prospectuses of most universities, is not that of equipping students with theoretical knowledge and skills to assess and modify behaviour. Rather, the main aim of these programmes of study is predominantly to educate potential psychologists in the basic theories of behaviour from different perspectives, as well as in research methodology and techniques (APA, 2013; BPS, 2012). It seems that the training at the level of more applied psychology requires education and training at the postgraduate level. As things stand, there seems to be a wide gulf that separates perceptions and expectations concerning psychology as a discipline with what actual university undergraduate teaching and training encompasses. The main aim of this chapter is to explore current trends and practices in teaching psychology at an undergraduate level from both a historical and a developmental perspective. The purpose of this exploration is predominantly to identify the advantages and disadvantages posed by these practices in preparing students for employment as psychologists upon graduation.

A historical background on the development of academic psychology

Psychology, as an academic discipline and an applied science that predominantly focuses on the study of behaviour and mental processes, seems to have deviated significantly from its origins, which can be traced back to ancient Greece. The theories and doctrines of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle and the more recent Hellenistic philosophical views of the Stoics and the Epicureans played a valuable role in the early recognition of the existence of mental processes that are linked to behaviour and, potentially, to the physiology of the mind (Walsh et al., 2014).

These early philosophical views, apart from being important in paving the way to the conceptual understanding of human behaviour, also contributed to the development of terminology used in contemporary psychology, by coining terms such as ψυχή (psyche) and νους (nous = mind), and set the basis for questioning, researching, understanding and defining mental processes (Leahey, 2012).

Due to the complexity of their theoretical and philosophical underpinnings, the same theories prevented psychology from developing into an independent discipline for a number of centuries. At the same time, these lines of reasoning were embraced and developed by Eastern and Western thinkers alike in order to explain the nature and the role of spiritualism in behaviour (Walsh et al., 2014). These theoretical approaches and philosophical views almost completely disregarded the repeated attempts to link mental processes and behaviour to physiological processes.

The lack of a defined methodology, and, by extent, the shortage of clear evidence to link mental processes to physiology or to any other of the natural sciences in general, was another factor that prevented psychology from being considered a scientific entity and promulgated the view that it was a branch of philosophy. This view seems to have culminated in the German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s (1786) declaration that psychology might never become a natural science due to the lack of an appropriate methodology to quantify the phenomena that fall within the psychological spectrum. As an alternative to the quantification of the phenomena that fall within the realm of psychology, Kant proposed the concept of empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire and action (Friedman, 2013; Kant, 1786).

Kant’s declaration showed the direction that psychology had to follow if it were to become scientific. It also came at a time when the evidence accumulated through observational, surgical and other anatomical and physiological procedures consistently suggested that mental processes could have physical properties and could potentially be quantified. It is on the basis of these indications, and on Kant’s declaration, that we first observe the development of mathematical methods that could potentially facilitate the scientific basis of psychology (Fancher & Rutherford, 2012).

The discipline of psychology, however, emerged as a distinct entity a few decades later, following the opening of the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany by Wilhelm Wundt (Benjamin, 2007). The approach of introspection, which Wundt developed and employed as the basic tool for his psychological investigations, was later viewed as unscientific and consequently abandoned. Nevertheless, Wundt was recognised as the father of modern experimental psychology. No one can deny his contribution in paving the way to the evolution of modern-day scientific psychology (Rieber & Robinson, 2001).

Wundt’s early work was followed by a proliferation of studies, results, theoretical propositions and waves of thought, making psychology one of the richest disciplines that attempted to explain mental processes and behaviour (Goodwin, 2012). The decades that followed, from the very early two-volume text on Principles of Psychology by William James (1890) to the countless volumes of psychological books and journals available today, indicate the wealth of knowledge accumulated and the large number of investigative techniques developed. These methodologies and theoretical propositions, which were supported by experimental and observational findings, facilitated the development of psychology as a discipline with distinct areas of study spanning from physiological to developmental, to cognitive and social psychology. Moreover, they helped psychology move beyond the areas of theoretical propositions and experimentation (Schultz & Schultz, 2007), as more applied fields of psychology emerged, such as clinical, educational, occupational, health, forensic and neuropsychology (Kaslow & Johnson, 2014).

In addition to the development of psychology as a distinct scientific discipline, with theoretical, experimental and applied directions, it is probably the only discipline whose findings are enmeshed in other scientific fields of study – such as medicine, education, sociology, economics and law – thus significantly contributing to the advancement of such disciplines (Thijssen & Luthy, 2012). However, the importance attributed to psychology in terms of its development, the wealth of knowledge accumulated over a relatively short period of time and its extensive application across disciplines often seem to result in the questioning of psychology as a science (Ash, 1980). A victim of its own applicability and popularity, psychology, for the most part, continues to remain stagnant as it is constantly striving to demonstrate its scientific basis (Goodwin, 2012). Consequently, the emphasis remains on the challenge of expanding the scientific understanding and knowledge of concepts encompassed within the spectrum of psychology. The importance of returning these findings to the main subjects of its scientific investigation, the people, is almost undervalued (Janda et al., 1998).

The division of psychology into different areas of research

Historically, initial degrees in the domain of psychology were conferred at the doctorate level, with the first doctoral degree in psychology awarded by Johns Hopkins University to Joseph Jastrow (a student of G. Stanley Hall) in 1886. This early practice reflects the development of psychology at a time when knowledge was scarce. Therefore, individuals who could make a substantial contribution to the limited existing pool of knowledge would be considered for the award of a degree (Benjamin, 2007). Undergraduate university programmes were introduced at a much later stage when adequate knowledge had been amassed thus allowing psychology to find a more comprehensive place in tertiary education.

The early years of modern psychology were characterised by an overflow of descriptions of theories and results stemming from either observational or experimental studies, aiding the better understanding of behaviour and processes encompassed within its wider domain. Following a period in which psychological research was conducted in a more individualistic manner, groups of likeminded scholars began to form scientific alliances and research working groups (Mandler, 2007). This approach contributed enormously to the expansion of knowledge. Undoubtedly, collective and collaborative investigation yielded more efficient patterns of work and, by extension, improvements in both the methodologies employed and the quality of evidence produced (Shiraev, 2014). In addition to their impact on research outcomes, such collaborations introduced several other advantages. First, they led to the formation of long-term associations in which scholars could express their scientific views and share findings within a scientifically scholastic framework. Second, they developed core groups of researchers, in which individuals with similar interests could communicate and jointly collaborate with. Finally, it was those newly formed groups of scholars that led to the development of psychological knowledge and to the recognition that phenomena falling within the spectrum of psychology have different facets that can lend themselves to different, and at times complementary, explanations (Trapp et al., 2011).

The realisation that behaviour and mental processes are multifaceted and could be observed and explained from different perspectives depending on a variety of factors, variables and the interaction between these factors and variables led to the development of research methods with greater complexity and sophistication. Advancements in methodology necessitated the use of more elaborate and specialised investigation tools. This came at a time when knowledge was required to be more specialised and in-depth, rather than explorative and generic. Consequently, many groups of researchers began to focus on specific facets of a particular phenomenon under investigation, conducting smaller scale but more defined studies (Mandler, 2007). This approach led to the subdivision of psychology into different areas of study.

The subdivision of psychology into distinct fields of study contributed immensely to the accumulation of knowledge and to the deeper and wider understanding of behaviour within the boundaries of a particular perspective. At the same time, these subdivisions hampered our comprehensive understanding of psychology for a long time (Weiner & Freedheim, 2003). The proliferation of theoretical propositions and the wealth of at times contradictory data did little to provide a coherent view of the different aspects of behaviour. Instead, they contributed to the recognition of the complexities governing psychological functions (Boring, Watson & Campbell, 1963).

As a result, the early part of the twentieth century witnessed the development of distinct research fields which, although theoretically under the wider umbrella of psychology, went beyond the mere explanation of behaviour and mental processes from a particular psychological perspective. At that time, psychological research was primarily conducted in departments relevant and linked to philosophy and physiology and its findings were influential in the development of these disciplines as well (Hatfield, 2002).

The emergence of psychology as a university discipline

In the midst of the aforementioned advancement in knowledge, the need to include psychology as an undergraduate university degree became apparent. The wider acceptance and usage of psychological theories and results by other academic disciplines (e.g. Glover & Ronning, 1987; Weiner & Freedheim, 2003), the popularity of the subject and the potential applications of psychological knowledge to a wide variety of settings and situations were some of the reasons behind the recognition that psychology had to be offered at the undergraduate level. However, at a time when knowledge in academia was becoming specialised and was guided by specific, well-established rules and methods, the true motive behind the move to establish undergraduate psychology programmes was guided by the need to train people in the science of psychological research and methods (Fuchs, 2012). This would ensure the continuation of psychological research while simultaneously cementing the scientific basis of psychology.

In the intermittent period between the establishment of psychology as a distinct discipline and the actual formation of the first psychology departments within academic institutions, a new tradition emerged – the tradition of presenting findings and theoretical arguments and propositions to the academic world through the delivery of lectures in other academic schools or departments whose field of study was considered close to, or relevant to, that of psychology. These lectures played a significant role in the wider acknowledgement of psychology, contributing to its extensive recognition as a new scientific field of study. The recognition that psychological research findings could lead to applications that, for example, could potentially facilitate improvements in teaching and learning methods in schools (e.g. Thorndike, 1910), or provide the means by which to understand how society and social factors may impact individuals and vice versa (Farr, 1996; Mueller, 1976), led many departments to enrich their academic curricula and programmes by initially incorporating psychology lectures and, subsequently, full psychology courses. This trend of including psychology courses into programmes of study outside psychology, albeit initiated by psychologists in order to proclaim the scientific basis of the discipline and to gain recognition that would go beyond the laboratory, came to haunt psychology and affected its development as an academic field for study and training.

The acceptance of scholars with diverse backgrounds to various departments, such as education, philosophy and physiology, tasked with conducting research in specific areas within the domain of psychology, proved to be the norm for the scientific expansion of psychology. Each group of researchers contributed both to the assimilation of psychological findings and principles to other disciplines and to the enhancement of knowledge in several subdomains of psychology. The development of specific methodological approaches, the accumulation of data from research studies and the impact that such findings had in the better understanding of behaviour highlighted the need for the development of undergraduate programmes in psychology.

Psychology as a university discipline

Following the impact that the two World Wars had on the re-stratification of society in general (Barkan, 1992), and in academia in particular, came the recognition that psychological knowledge held great importance in understanding people’s performance and reactions within the wider sphere of behaviour (Hoffman, 1992; Rose, 1990; Smith, 2013). The emergence of undergraduate programmes in psychology, initially within other departments and, subsequently, in newly established psychology departments, posed several advantages. Apart from placing psychology as an academic discipline on the wider map of university programmes and contributing to its further development, it also assisted in the enhancement of research. Around this time, and for the first time in the history of psychology, scholars and academics interested in psychological research did not have to seek refuge in the laboratories of other academic departments. Now, they were offered the place and the means to investigate hypotheses and provide answers to research questions in their own right without having to seek opportunities through other disciplines.

The emergence of these departments gathered together scientific minds interested in behaviour and mental processes, thus enabling them to join forces in order to enhance each other’s knowledge and collectively contribute to the better understanding of the field of psychology. As a result, all segments of psychological enquiry, findings and theories found a home. Moreover, by extension, any contributions made to other disciplines interested in psychological findings were credited to psychology rather than being fragmented and enmeshed into their own theoretical frameworks (Weiner & Freedheim, 2003). Finally, it was within these newly formed departments that psychologists, at last, were given the identity of their specialisation – the identity that all researchers interested in the investigation and understanding of behaviour lacked since the historical start of enquiry into psychological phenomena.

As psychology departments grew and as research findings and theories were amassed, groups of psychologists started to form distinct subfields and specialised areas within psychology. The five main approaches of psychology that were developed initially were biological psychology, cognitive psychology, psychoanalysis, behaviourism and humanistic psychology (Bernstein et al., 2008). From these approaches, we see the development of even more fields such as developmental psychology, social psychology, personality and individual differences, abnormal psychology and psychopathology, as well as neuropsychology (Weiner & Freedheim, 2003). In conjunction with the development and expansion of these perspectives, there is also a continuous development and advancement of research methodology (Black & Mitchell, 1995; Boring et al., 1963; Hersen & Rosqvist, 2008).

The development and standardisation of psychometric tools and inventories assessing cognitive functioning (Deary, 2012), particular characteristics relevant to personality (Hilsenroth & Segal, 2004; Kline, 1999), earlier experiences and specific psychopathology, highlighted the potential use of psychological findings in more applied settings. The recognition that psychological principles could be applied to a variety of settings (such as in a clinic or school) led to the development of a number of more applied fields (Weiner & Freedheim, 2003). Most likely, fields such as clinical, educational and occupational psychology were the first to develop, followed by fields such as neuropsychology, counselling, forensic and health psychology.

Early undergraduate degrees in psychology

The extensive subdivisions of psychology and the breadth of knowledge, techniques and methodologies associated with the different subfields of psychology pointed to the need for a radical modification of undergraduate teaching in a coherent curriculum. The main purpose of the early undergraduate programmes of psychology was threefold:

(1) to expand and make psychology widely known as an independent and distinct academic field of study;

(2) to provide courses that, in addition to educating prospective psychologists, would also contribute to the education of students from other departments, which were previously ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• 1. The Development of Undergraduate Psychology Degrees and the Need for Change
• 2. Problem-Based Learning
• 3. Student Assessment in a Problem-Based Curriculum
• 4. A Psychology Problem-Based Curriculum
• 5. Sample Problem-Based Learning Cases in Psychology
• 6. Epilogue
• References
• Author Index
• Subject Index