Religious Experience Among Second Generation Korean Americans

Mark Chung Hearn

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN:
  9781137594129
• eBook ISBN:
  9781137594136
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Korean History
• Index: History

 This book explores the ways through which Korean American men demonstrate and navigate their manhood within a US context that has historically sorted them into several limiting, often emasculating, stereotypes. In the US, Korean men tend to be viewed as passive, non-athletic, and asexual (or hypersexual). They are often burdened with very specific expectations that run counter to traditional tropes of US masculinity.  According to the normative script of masculinity, a "man" is rugged, individualistic, and powerful—the antithesis of the US social construction of Asian American men. In an interdisciplinary fashion, this book probes the lives of Korean American men through the lenses of religion and sports. Though these and other outlets can serve to empower Korean American men to resist historical scripts that limit their performance of masculinity, they can also become harmful. Mark Chung Hearn utilizes ethnography, participant observation, and interviews conducted with second-generation Korean American men to explore what it means to be an Asian American man today.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016

Mark Chung HearnReligious Experience Among Second Generation Korean AmericansAsian Christianity in the Diaspora10.1057/978-1-137-59413-6_1

Begin Abstract

1. Introduction

Mark Chung Hearn¹ 

(1)

Seattle University School of Theology, Seattle, WA, USA

 

Abstract

The chapter highlights the need for a new conversation partner to the religious studies of Korean American Christianity, one that consists of the voices of second-generation Korean American men. Hearn proposes that Korean American men need healing. Furthermore, as second-generation Korean American men heal, the communities in which they live and lead have different opportunities to the same. Hearn closes the chapter by locating himself and revealing the impetus and motivation for his work.

Keywords

Korean American ChristianitySecond-Generation Korean AmericanHan

End Abstract

Pastors and scholars have provided contemporary resources on Korean Americans and their religious experiences throughout the years. My hope is that this project is a resource that complements these conversations. This contribution is unique in that it explores in interdisciplinary fashion the second-generation Korean American religious experiences through the voices and experiences of second-generation Korean American men . There have been several resources by, and for, Korean American women and rightfully so; Korean and Asian American communities have needed them for our churches and in our theological and pastoral formation. You will find many of these resources throughout this book and in the bibliography. That said, there has been a dearth of explicit theological and spiritual resources for Korean American men to address important issues for men and the communities in which they live and lead. ¹ Understandably, some may have concern over an explicit work for men. After all, we live in a patriarchal structure where an unwillingness to name the very power differentials that stem from gender discrepancies continues to favor an unspoken societal gender norm . From casual conversations to scholarly forums in which I have participated with Korean American women, the message of hurt, anger, disappointment , and resistance to patriarchy rings clearly and loudly in their voices. We, men, are indebted to the work of Asian American women who have gone before us pointing out systems of oppression and injustice , and within the church no less.

Michael Kaufman brings our attention to the notion of a “triad of violence .” ² We must address issues of violence toward others—particularly women and children , other men, and within our own individual lives, in order that we, and the communities in which we live, might exist more freely and peaceably. At the heart of critical feminism lies a commitment for a deep and true freedom for all. And in order for this freedom to occur in society and in our communities, men need to be aware of the issues that surround and influence them including issues of power , patriarchy, and violence. We must also move from awareness and education to action , rectifying broken relationships and systems in which we have been complicit. Critical studies are not politically free endeavors as they serve prophetic roles in deconstructive ways that often carry a price calling for change. However, the maintenance of status quo is neither politically free as it serves to continue existing structures. In this sense, this book, unapologetically, is an attempt to contribute to this freedom work.

To understand Korean American men and address various concerns and issues, an interdisciplinary approach is needed. As I propose throughout, second-generation Korean American men are complex sociohistorical beings who contend daily with others’ interpretations of who they and their bodies can be. We cannot interpret Korean American men solely through a single lens. Rather, we need multiple lenses to comprehend the vast experiences and realities of Korean American men and the communities in which they participate. For this reason, I use resources from Asian American studies, sociology of sport, men’s studies, spirituality, and religious education to dialog with, and inform, the semi-structured interviews I conducted with fifteen second-generation Korean American men, ages twenty-five to forty-five, around their understanding of manhood and spirituality. ³ Furthermore, I utilized two other qualitative research methods, ethnography at Christ Church ⁴ and participant observation at various Korean American sports tournaments , both in the greater Los Angeles area, in order to gain a closer look into Korean American religious experiences and the significance of competitive sport among Korean American men, respectively.

Locating Myself as an Author

Some may wonder about my interest in this project, especially with a non-Korean last name. I am the youngest child of two Korean immigrants who came to the United States separately for different purposes during the mid-1950s to early 1960s. When my father first immigrated, he changed his name from Han to Hearn for various reasons. If he were to transliterate the Korean characters of his family name to H-A-N, he was doubtful people would pronounce it with a soft “a” opting instead for a short one as in the word “hand.” He could have spelled his last name Hahn as many Germans did but in the 1950s, on the heels of World War II , this may not have been the wisest move in the United States. A secondary reason, but nonetheless important in light of the social discrimination Korean Americans and Asian Americans have experienced in this country, my father also changed his name for employment reasons. He did not want himself, nor his future family, to be prohibited from a job because of an Asian-sounding last name. At least on paper, we would be equals.

My parents eventually fulfilled their life and professional vocation serving the Church in its Korean Americancontext . For over thirty years, they, as pastoral leaders, served Korean Americans in the Los Angeles area from the 1970s to the early 2000s. There were many times as a young boy that I remember my father taking me to Los Angeles International Airport to pick up a family that had just relocated from Korea and were needing some assistance getting settled in this new and foreign land. Somehow, they had been given our phone number and hoped this connection would be a portal to a new life. My parents did not call it this, but what I was learning then was social justice and social holiness . They gave me my first glimpse into faith in action and left indelible prophetic and pastoral images that stay with me today.

The healing and restoration of all people then carries me through this project. I find this no less true as an educator as I have found as an athletic coach, pastor, and consultant. I am reminded daily about how our world can use a good measure of restoration and healing. The stories of the men with whom I had the privilege of interviewing and building relationships with is an example of the pain , loss , and disappointment that exists among us . They carry great han , the unresolved angst, bitterness, and disappointment that needs resolution . ⁵ Yet, Korean American men do not only need healing for themselves; their communities need Korean American men to heal as well. This is not simply a personal and individual issue, but a systemic one. Men who do violence because they feel little sense of manhood in this country often commit violence to their families, churches , and eventually themselves. The restoration of Korean American men assists in the healing of their familial, relational, and church communities.

It would be remiss, however, to paint a portrait of Korean American men as simply pained and broken. Several of the men offered glimpses of their experiences that are hopeful for a renewed understanding and interest in one’s internal healing and social relationships. I also do not suggest for our pardon from the responsibility of any destruction we have caused. We have, and continue to contribute, to the pain of many, including our own selves. I believe that as Korean American men work on the healing of our issues, we are in essence, working on becoming whole human beings who can better relate to women, to other men, and to our own selves. As I heard from several of the men, they have begun this journey toward freedom and wholeness claiming responsibility for the destruction in their lives and the lives of others. My hope is that you find by the end of this book an interest to understand, if not a willingness to engage, Korean American men and their healing.

Notes

1.

I have yet to come across a work by a Korean American male author that substantially addresses the issue of patriarchy and gender among Korean Americans, while there are significant examples of women scholars doing so. A recent work that addresses the social construction of Psy, the Korean pop-star who ventured into US cultural spaces, previously unreached by Korean Americans, is Joseph Cheah and Grace Ji-Sun Kim’s recent book, Theological Reflections on “Gangnam Style: A Racial, Sexual, and Cultural Critique” (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

A Korean American male scholar who addresses briefly the issue of patriarchy is Andrew Sung Park as he theologically discusses the effects of patriarchy in relation to the Korean concept of han. Another Asian American male scholar who has worked on issues of gender and patriarchy as these relate to religion is Antony W. Alumkal. These two, however, are clearly the exception rather than the rule. See Andrew Sung Park, The Wounded Heart of God: The Asian Concept of Han and the Christian Doctrine of Sin (Nashville: Abingdon, 1993); Antony W. Alumkal, Asian American Evangelical Churches: Race, Ethnicity, and Assimilation in the Second Generation (New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing, LLC, 2003).

 

2.

Michael Kaufman, “The Construction of Masculinity and the Triad of Men’s Violence,” in Men’s Lives, ed. Michael S. Kimmel and Michael A. Messner, 4th ed. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), 4–17.

 

3.

These interviews occurred from March 2011 to July 2011. As semi-structured interviews, I asked the men to consider two questions prior to the interviews which would begin each conversation: (1) What is your symbol of manhood and why? and (2) What is spirituality to you? With regards to the first question, I asked each man to bring an object that symbolized for them their understanding of manhood.

 

4.

The names of Christ Church and the men I interviewed have all been changed.

 

5.

Park, Wounded Heart of God.

 

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016

Mark Chung HearnReligious Experience Among Second Generation Korean AmericansAsian Christianity in the Diaspora10.1057/978-1-137-59413-6_2

Begin Abstract

2. Situating Korean American Men in Asian America

Mark Chung Hearn¹

(1)

Seattle University School of Theology, Seattle, WA, USA

Abstract

Utilizing a social construction lens, Hearn situates Korean American men within US history beginning with Chinese migration to Hawaii. The chapter proposes that the seeds for Asian American male stereotypes and the racial discrimination Korean American men face today were planted during the arrival of Asians to the Hawaiian Islands and then to California. Hearn offers several different understandings of racism and how the media continues to perpetuate Asian American stereotypes. These stereotypes contribute to the ongoing construction of Asian American masculinity and subsequent racial discrimination toward Korean American men.

Keywords

Korean American menMasculinityAsian immigrationAsian American stereotypesRacial discrimination

End Abstract

A Social Construction Lens

Social construction theory argues that a person is a socially-constructed being, that is, a person makes meaning and can only be understood within a social web of fabricated meaning. ¹ While a person’s self-understanding is important, social construction theory argues that it is in relation to others that meaning is created for the individual and a society. A person exists not only in physical form marked by visible characteristics such as skin color , facial shape, and hair texture, but more importantly, it is what society confers upon the person that is significant. A black and white car with flashing red lights is only significant on account of the social interactions attitudes and understanding concerning police cars, police officers, and the law. A metal car with flashing lights now has meaning as it is understood within that specific locale and time . Social construction theorists, therefore, contend that meaning is created only within the context of shared understanding and interaction.

These meanings vary and shift depending upon the particular social and historical context. For example, Jews and Italians were initially viewed as distinct from Anglo-Americans during their initial immigration to the USA in the nineteenth century. These two groups, however, successfully achieved whiteness by distinguishing themselves from African Americans . ² Similarly, the racial status of the Chinese in the Mississippi Delta region changed from near Black to near White . ³ Recruited as agricultural labor to the region as e...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Frontmatter
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Situating Korean American Men in Asian America
• 3. Listening to Korean American Men Tell Their Lives
• 4. Sports and Korean American Men
• 5. Korean American Spirituality and Gender
• 6. Forming Korean American Men: What Can We Do?
• Backmatter