1.1 Introduction to Energy Access and Regionalism
It has long been recognised that energy is central to addressing the major global challenges of the twenty-first century including poverty, climate change, famine, and environmental degradation, to mention but a few. This is due to the fact that energy is not only essential for the provision of basic social services such as education and health care services, but it is also essential for industrialisation and the general economic development. Africa is a curious example of a continent (although by no means the only example) that is home to vast energy resources yet today is also home to hundreds of millions of people still lacking even basic access to modern energy such as electricity, natural gas, and liquefied natural gas (LNG) for lighting and cooking, respectively.
Modern energy can be distinguished from traditional energy by looking at the quality of energy used for instance with regard to traditional energy candles, kerosene, and lamps are used for lighting; and firewood for cooking. Over-reliance on traditional energy and having limited/no access to modern energy is basically what is referred to as âenergy povertyâ and in some instances energy access. In reality the concept of energy access and energy poverty is complex, especially with regard to understanding or agreeing on where energy poverty ends or what energy access really entails and means. Issues may arise as to whether a household which shifts from firewood and adopts modern stoves for cooking and a small solar panel for lighting up a few bulbs can qualify as one with access to modern energy: And if so, what about energy for business such as that needed in industries and large-scale farming? These issues highlight the universal difficulty in addressing energy access challenges, thus the increasing number of people lacking access to modern energy in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
This is despite numerous initiatives taken over decades at the international, regional, and national levels to address the problem of energy access. Of relevance to this book, the problem not only persists but continues to escalate in SSA, a major region of Africa covering approximately 27,000 square kilometres. Geographically, SSA consists of the part of the African continent that lies south of the Sahara Desert. Politically, it consists of all African countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara, with the notable exception of Sudan. In energy terms, the SSA region is home to abundant energy resources including both fossil fuels and renewables. Despite the energy âwealthâ of these countries, most of their citizens remain poor with the majority having no access to electricity.
It is against this stark background that this book looks closely at the regional efforts taken in SSA to tackle the challenge of energy access and energy poverty. There is no doubt that SSA countries have common energy challenges including inadequate and unreliable electricity supply, and heavy reliance on inefficient forms of energy such as traditional biomassâwhich has various negative effects on health and environment. For instance in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, it has been reported that more than 153,000 people die each year from household pollution resulting from indoor burning of solid fuels such as traditional biomass for cooking and heating.1 These common energy challenges could be tackled with common efforts through regional cooperation. Achieving cooperative outcomes, however, can be difficult in practice. As such, the existence of a broader framework, which can be achieved through existing regional and international organisations, can lead to greater cooperation in the energy sector.
The focus of this book therefore is on the regional cooperative mechanisms employed by SSA regional organisations. There are a number of existing cooperative mechanisms already in place in SSA regional organisations, including the East African Community (EAC), the Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). These regional organisations are the main case studies of this book and these are discussed in the next section:
1.1.1 The East African Community (EAC)
The EAC is a regional inter-governmental organisation of six countries.2 It was established under Article 2 of the EAC Treaty with the main objective of widening and deepening cooperation among partner states. The EAC regional integration is a progressive process through four major pillars: Customs Union, Common Market, Monetary Union, and the Political Federation. Moving from one level of integration to another is through negotiated Protocols. In 2004, a Protocol for the establishment of the East African Custom Union was signed by the three original partner states and entered into force in 2005. Rwanda and Burundi joined the Custom Union in 2009. This was followed by establishment of a common market, which entered into force in 2010. The Protocol for establishing a Monetary Union was signed in November 2013 and its operationalisation is ongoing with a ten-year implementation phase before adopting a single currency for the region. The EAC has five organs and these are responsible for ensuring effective operation of the EAC. These organs include: the Summit comprising of heads of government of partner states, the Council of Ministers, coordinating Committee, Sectoral Committees, the East African Court of Justice, the East African Legislative Assembly, and the Secretariat.3
1.1.2 The Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS)
ECOWAS is a regional inter-governmental organisation of 15 countries.4 It was established under Article 2 of the ECOWAS Treaty, with the main objective of promoting cooperation and integration in West Africa. Though ECOWAS was established in 1976, the desire to create regional cooperation among West African states dates back to 1964, with a call from President William Tubman of Liberia. This followed the signing of an Agreement among Cote dâIvoire, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone in 1965 and later the adoption of the Protocol establishing ECOWAS on 5 November 1976 by the 15 member states. ECOWAS consists of the Authority of Heads of State and Government, the Council of Ministers, the Community Tribunal, Community Court of Justice, the Executive Secretariat, the ECOWAS Parliament, and the Specialised Commissions.
1.1.3 The Southern African Development Community (SADC)
SADC is a regional inter-governmental organisation of 15 countries.5 It was established under Article 2 of the 1992 Treaty with the main objective of achieving development, economic growth, and alleviation of poverty through regional integration.6 SADC is the successor to the Southern African Coordinating Conference (SADCC). SADCC was formed in Lusaka, Zambia in 1980 with the adoption of the Lusaka Declaration.7 SADCC was formalised by a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on the Institutions of the Southern African Development Coordination Conference dated July 1981. In an effort to formalise SADCC and give it an appropriate legal status, the MOU was replaced by a Treaty. In this regard, the SADC Declaration and Treaty was signed on 17 August 1992 and this effectively transformed SADCC into SADC.8 Six institutions are established under the SADC Treaty. These include the Summit of Heads of States or Governments, the Council of Ministers, Commissions, the standing Committee of officials, the Secretariat, and the Tribunal. The Summit is the supreme policy making institution of SADC; it consists of the Heads of States or Governments of each member state, and it is responsible for the overall policy direction and control of the functions of SADC.9
Looking at EAC, ECOWAS, and SADC provides a unique insight in the cooperative activities in various regions of SSA including the East, West, and South. These regions are also home to massive energy resources including both renewables and fossil fuels. The unique feature with regard to the achievements, number of member states, and organisation of these regional organisations presents a good ground to carry out a comparative analysis of their regional efforts in tackling the challenge of energy poverty. Moreover, their historical background in terms of the reasons for their establishment, for instance the political reasons for SADC and the economic reasons for both ECOWAS and EAC, also presents a good insight on the aspect of regionalism in SSA.
In particular, the key issue addressed in this book is whether the energy regional cooperative mechanisms employed by EAC, ECOWAS, and SADC are effective in tackling the c...