African languages must take on the duty, the responsibility and the challenge of speaking for the continent. The vitality and equality of African languages must be recognized as a basis for the future empowerment of African peoples. Dialogue among African languages is essential: African languages must use the instrument of translation to advance communication among all people (Asmara Declaration on African Languages and Literature, 2000).
The above declaration was made by writers and scholars from all regions of Africa who had gathered in Asmara, Eritrea for a conference at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The African writers and scholars gave African languages the mandate to speak for the continent. In other words, African languages are to be used in official capacities. This is nothing new in Africa; during the precolonial time, African languages were used at all levels of the society and served all functions in the society. They were used at home, in education (including higher institutions of learning), and in the government (e.g., in Mali Kingdom) (Davidson, 1984) among other domains. Bestowing African languages the mandate to speak for the continent, empowers these languages. To empower African languages is to give agency to the African people. The African writers and scholars gathered in Asmara also recognized that translation cannot be underestimated. Translation ensures that African people are able to enjoy and share each other’s culture. For instance, the translation of Moolaadé film and other cultural products like Song of Lawino (which are discussed in this volume) into different African languages has enabled dialogues among African people and the languages themselves.
Almost two decades after this famous conference in Asmara, we the contributors of this volume decided to produce this volume to show the state of African languages and literatures in Africa and beyond in the twenty-first century. We wondered whether the African languages are speaking for the continent or not in this century. If yes, how are they doing this? If not, what can be done to remedy the situation? The chapters in this volume provide major means for examining the interplay of language, literature, and education in Africa and beyond, in the twenty-first century. Hence, the main objective of this edited volume is to provide a deeper understanding of African languages and cultures in the twenty-first century. The current volume shows how the same issues that triggered the 2000 Asmara declaration (e.g., marginalization of African people in national development and mass failure of students in schools) continue to resurface and how African languages remain the key and answer to resolving those issues. The twenty-first century has opened up great opportunities for African languages and cultures. Even though the world is becoming smaller through the forces of globalization and at the face value one may think that the hegemony of languages like English may be prevailing, African languages and literatures have found a niche on the global stage. With expansion in technology and mobility of African people from one country to another, the twenty-first century has opened up new avenues for African languages and cultures to be spread all over the world. For example, African languages (e.g., Swahili) have crossed the seas and are taught abroad (e.g., in America, see Lisanza’s and Maganda’s chapters in this volume). As a matter of fact, over 130 academic institutions in the USA offer Swahili (Kuntz, 1993). Also, in the twenty-first century many African creative writers have continued to write in African languages. These writers include Clara Momanyi and Mohamed Said Ahmed whose works are discussed by Rose Sau Lugano and Mohamed Mwamzandi respectively in this volume. Additionally, African songwriters and singers continue to compose in African languages (e.g., see Samba Camara’s and Leonard Muaka’s chapters in this volume). Furthermore, African languages (e.g., Tamazight) have not been left behind in African education (e.g., see Ali Alolau’s and Adesina and Olorunyomi’s chapters in this volume).
Essentially, the chapters included in this volume are intentional in repositioning African languages in Africa’s resurgence and presence on the continent in the twenty-first century. While there is no denial that globalization, a byproduct of the twenty-first century may have brought with it some challenges to African languages and cultural products, African languages and their arts have also benefitted immensely from the opportunities it presents (see Alalou’s chapter).
The twenty-first century has also witnessed expansion in the Internet and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) than the previous centuries. There is no question that African languages have taken advantage of these technologies which are aiding in the teaching, writing, and positioning of African languages on the globe as it will be discussed in different chapters of this volume. Also, social networking platforms like Facebook allow African people to communicate on regular basis through African languages and other languages as well which may include hybrids (e.g., Sheng in Kenya). However, given that the twenty-first century has been marked by the expansion of ICT, it does not mean that the old ways of communicating like face to face communication have been neglected. ICT complements face to face communication as discussed by Adesina and Olorunyomi in this volume.
What follows is the discussion of the book’s contribution by examining the interplay of language, literature, and education in Africa and beyond in the twenty-first century. It is important to note that our definition of literature is broad enough to include cultural expressions such as film and songs as tools which are used to entertain and teach in African societies and beyond. After the discussion on the book’s contribution we will offer an outline of the book. In terms of the volume’s contribution to the understanding of African languages and cultures in the twenty-first century, all contributors foreground Africans’ agency. The first contribution which the book offers is an in-depth discussion of the role of African languages in education. This is an intentional decision because of the centrality of the school as an institutional agency. In schools, African languages are used as languages of education even though in many African countries they are only used in lower levels of education. For example, in Morocco, Tamazight one of the Berber languages is finding its way into education even though it is facing competition from French and Arabic (see Ali Alalou’s chapter). The fact that these languages are being used in education, gives them legitimacy as vehicles of knowledge in Africa. Moreover, African languages (e.g., Swahili, Wolof, Yoruba, Amharic, etc.) are taught abroad (e.g., in the USA) for academic credits or noncredit classes (see Lisanza’s and Maganda’s chapters). The fact that these languages are taught abroad, gives them visibility and respect beyond Africa (Roy-Campbell, 2006).
The second contribution of the book is to show the role of African languages in cultural expression. These languages are used in both oral literature and written literature just as they are used as identity markers and resources in ensuring sustainable development in various speech communities. As a matter of fact, the African continent boasts of having one of the oldest written languages in the world, Geez in Ethiopia. With writing systems in place, many African creative writers have written in African languages. The presence of written literature gives a voice to African literature not only in Africa but on the global stage as well. African literature can be read by anyone anywhere in the world so long as they understand the language or if the work has been translated into the language they understand. For example, Song of Lawino (Wer pa Lawino in Acholi-Luo) by Okot p’Bitek has been translated into other languages like English and Swahili. The translation of African works into other languages gives African languages a voice in the world. Through African creative writing, global citizens get exposed to African cultures and African people’s daily experiences. For example, Song of Lawino which is discussed in this volume by Martha Moraa Michieka forms part of the literature syllabuses in African countries, USA, Europe, and so on. Also, Swahili literature books like Mhanga Nafsi Yangu (I Sacrificed Myself) discussed by Mohamed Mwamzandi in this volume and Tumaini (Hope) discussed by Rose Sau Lugano in this volume, are part of Swahili syllabuses in Kenya and Tanzania.
Furthermore, in this volume we show how African languages have also found their way in multimedia (e.g., film). For example, Ousmane Sembene who is regarded as the father of African film has produced several films in African languages (e.g., Moolaadé, discussed in this volume by Rose Sau Lugano). The use of African languages in film gives African languages a voice in the twenty-first century. Also, the fact that these films have subtitles in English and French, really makes African cultures and knowledge accessible to the rest of the world.
African languages have been used in composing music since time immemorial. However, in the twenty-first century with the expansion of the Internet their presence is felt all over the globe. One just needs to switch on his/her computer, tab or iPhone and go to YouTube and search for “African Music” this will open up a plethora of choices. One can li...