The use of fire or flame in warfare dates back to ancient times, with early accounts of the use of fire weapons in the Vedic Indian literature1 and later records describing the use of flaming hemp arrows by the Persians in 480 BCE.2 However, it was in 673 AD that âincendiaries entered a new phaseâ with the employment of âGreek Fireâ as an early form of âflame throwerâ by the Byzantine Empire.3 The details of Greek Fire remained a closely guarded secret which was subject to the official secrets act of the time; however, it is understood to have been primarily composed of Naphtha4 and argued to have contributed to the âsuccessful defence, against attacks from all quarters, for the next 800 yearsâ.5 Certainly, Mayor describes Greek Fire as the âultimate weapon of its timeâ;6 and Partington describes Greek Fire as being regarded as an âold fashioned atomic bombâ.7 Such was the horror generated by Greek Fire that European leaders eschewed such incendiaries as a tool in warfare, prohibiting their use against humans as part of an agreement emerging from the Second Lateran Council in 1139,8 which was largely respected until the early twentieth century.
Over time, Greek Fire became replaced by gunpowder, the exact origins of which remain unknown,9 although it is widely understood to have been produced in China by the mid-ninth century AD, where its earliest use was in fireworks and incendiary weapons. Indeed, Joseph Needhamâs seminal study of Science and Civilization in China suggests that low-nitrate gunpowder compositions intended to generate fire and flame rather than explosions predominated in the early military uses of gunpowder, where it was used as an incendiary in projectiles, such as yao chien: gunpowder carrying arrows, and huo phao: fire bombs hurled by trebuchets, which were designed with barbed hooks to attach the incendiary device to wooden structures or ship sails.10 According to Needham, the first use of brisant high-nitrate gunpowder to generate explosions occurred with the âthunderclap bombâ, which âbecame characteristic of the conflicts of the +12 centuryâ.11 The effect of such weapons was more likely to have been psychological than physical; the gunpowder contained within a bamboo casing would have made a loud noise upon detonation, but had limited casualty causing explosive force. Nevertheless, some accounts suggest that the sound of the bombs was not militarily insignificant, with reports of the explosions causing confusion and panic amongst troops and horses.12
By the thirteenth century, however, Needham suggests that brisant high-nitrate gunpowder was more commonly encased in iron to generate what are translated as âheaven shaking thunder crash bombsâ, which appear to have been used in naval and land warfare with devastating effect.13 Over the course of the thirteenth century, the size of weapons grew steadily and diversified with the emergence of several forms of early land mine evident in the Chinese literature, including the âinvincible ground thunder mineâ, âself-trespassing mineâ, and the âstone-cut explosive land mineâ.14 These early forms of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) were remarkable not only for their innovative employment of high-nitrate gunpowder, but also for the development of early improvised trigger mechanisms (albeit of dubious efficacy), with evidence of a form of victim-operated mine using flint and steel igniters dating back to the mid-fourteenth century.15
Gunpowder Goes West
Gunpowder is believed to have been introduced to Europe by Arab traders around 1240,16 with the first written European record of gunpowder appearing in the 1267 treatise of Roger Bacon.17 Accounts of the first use of gunpowder in European conflicts vary: Some commentators have suggested that gunpowder was used in Europe for the first time in 1262 in the siege of the city of Niebla, Spain.18 However, according to Brown, the first use of a form of explosive rocket device in warfare in the West occurred in the siege of Chioggia in 1380, and subsequently a number of gunpowder rockets emerged as an early and primitive alternative to trebuchets.19 Over time, gunpowder slowly became integrated into more and more state arsenals, to the extent that âby the fifteenth century, gunpowder was changing the relationship in the West between technology, the state, and warâ,20 and generating what some have termed a âmilitary revolutionâ over the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries21 with the emergence of early cannons, primitive portable firearms, mines, and military demolition technology.
Regarding mines, Mariano Taccolaâs text De Machinis from circa 1430 provides drawings of a âgunpowder mineâ designed for deployment in attacks on castles22; however, the notion of mines did not gain significant traction until later with the work of the French Marshal, SĂ©bastien Le Prestre de Vauban, who is of particular note for his pioneering use of explosives in both offence and defence during siege warfare, including through the development of early forms of mines.23 The use of gunpowder in devices that were arguably âimprovisedâ became prominent in a number of conflicts. Examples include events such as the, albeit contested, reported use of (counter) mines in the defence of Belgrade in 143924; the employment of explosive mines by Pedro Navarro, a Spanish military engineer, in the destruction of the castle of Uovo in 150325; the destruction of the fortress of Godesberg and garrison in Kameyana in Japan in 158326; and the use of demolition mining in the wars of Dutch independence,27 providing observable demonstrations of the potential of explosives in warfare.
Beyond cannons, firearms, and mines, gunpowder was also innovatively used from an early stage in a variety of early ship-borne IEDs and other devices, frequently drawn from contemporaneous developments in fields, such as clock-making, milling, gun-making, and precision engineering techniques.28 Over time, such ideas began to spread into both the imagination and armamentarium of non-state actors, in part through the codification of ideas for âinfernal machinesâ in a number of early texts. In addition to Taccolaâs early illustrations, Wulff von Senftenbergâs 1568 work Von allerlei Kriegsgewehr und GeschĂŒtz refers to wagon-borne IEDs, clockwork IEDs, and victim-operated IEDs built into chests or boxes29; Samuel Zimmermanâs text Dialogus is dated to 1573 and alludes to booby-trapped explosive chairs and explosive âpurses of goldâ30; whereas Jean Appierâs 1630 text, La Pyrotechnie de Hanzelet ⊠oĂč sont reprĂ©sentez les plus rares & plus appreuuez secrets des machines & des feux artificiels propres pour assiĂ©ger battre surprendre & deffendre toutes places, includes a section on infernal machines that covers variously âan explosive basket of eggs ⊠initiated by a wheel-lock gun mechanismâ,31 an âexplosive chest on a truckâ, and âan explosive cask of wineâ.32
There is also ample evidence to suggest that some such devices began to be explored by certain violent extremist groups of the time. Particularly salient examples of what can be seen as early non-state actorsâ use of gunpowder allegedly includeâif one accepts the popular, established narrative33âthe failed gunpowder plot to blow up King James the First and Parliament in 1605 using 36 barrels of gunpowder. This plot, which is celebrated in many parts of the UK on November the 5th of each year, remains deeply engrained in British cultural memory and can perhaps be seen as a pioneering example of relig...