1.1 Introduction
Organizations assure their ongoing existence and long-term development by attempting continually to improve their operations and behaviour (Cooper & Argyris, 1998; Daft, 2018). In circumstances of limited availability of production resources and highly competitive markets, organizations can influence their results primarily through the creation and implementation of behaviour solutions, which are aimed at the matching of outputs to the demands of their internal and external stakeholders (Etzioni, 1997; Mullins, 2016).
Since 1970s, understanding and appreciation of management has grown tremendously (Certo & Certo, 2012; Daft, 2018; Jones & George, 2014). This has led to the development of various general and specific definitions of the term āmanagementā. Websterās dictionary mentions 25 different general definitions of management (Gove, 2002), the Oxford Dictionary of Business and Management offers 23 different definitions (Law, 2016) and the Dictionary of Word Origins provides 18 definitions (Ayto, 1994).
To avoid confusion given the available conceptualizations of management, we use the definition of management offered by Cooper and Argyris (1998, p. 24), and adopted by others (Jones & George, 2014; Mirvis & Googins, 2018; Ralston et al., 2014): āas administration and coordination of the activities in working of profit, non-profit, and government organizationsā. According to Mullins (2016, p. 18) āmanagers are a group of specialists, who perform the basic management functions, namely planning, organizing, leading and controlling, and try to use the available sources of their organization (i.e. human, material, financial and natural), to reach the chosen aim of the organizationā. Managersā behavior in practice reflects mutual influence and interdependences between organizations and their environments (Kemmelmeier et al., 2002; Leslie et al., 2018; Lufthans & Youssef, 2007). For example, the prevailing relations and institutional regulations in organizationsā environment define the framework of organization and its management, but organizationsā managers also retroactively impact society (Daft, 2018; Etzioni, 1997; Robbins & Judge, 2016).
Furthermore, societyās demands and requirements, as well as the conditions and prevailing relations establish an organizationās philosophy (Cooper & Argyris, 1998; Hill & Hult, 2015; Mullins, 2016), which enables managers to define the foundations of the organizationās operating and behaviour. Following their selected philosophy, managers can shape the basic characteristics of the organization: its orientation (both internal and external), interests (whether internal or external etc.), theories for explaining the organizationās rationale and modus (e.g., social, economic, etc.), relations to various environments and stakeholders, goals of work (e.g., functional, process, institutional, humanistic, situation based) (Certo & Certo, 2012; Jones & George, 2014; Leslie et al., 2018) among others.
Studies by academics and practitioners have revealed that available conceptualizations of management show significant congruities in terms of fundamental contextual theories and corresponding knowledge (Cooper & Argyris, 1998; Jones & George, 2014; Leslie et al., 2018). Some examples from the literature that serve to demonstrate these include: developing of models for management, consideration of individual viewpoints of management, studies about aggregate and multiple social dimensions of management, cognition of relations between management and other organizationsā stakeholders (Certo & Certo, 2012; Cooper & Argyris, 1998; Daft, 2018).
These studies provide guidance for the operationalization of management through studies of management implementation in diverse organizations, process-consideration of management and the impact of management on organizational outcomes (Boiral, Raineri, & Talbot, 2018; Collins & Porras, 2008; Daft, 2018), among others.
Conceptualizations of management in response to competitive pressures calling for improved organizational behaviour are more biased (Cooper & Argyris, 1998; Hill & Hult, 2015; Leslie et al., 2018). Management research into heterogeneous motives of organizationsā stakeholders, the individual interests of organizationsā stakeholders and implementation of management under different circumstances (Boiral et al., 2018; Glavas & Kelley, 2014; Mullins, 2016) calls for further studies of such behaviour. Initial management studies were focused on managersā behaviour and its impacts on providing direction, implementing plans, motivating people and utilization of chosen management ideas in organizations (Inglehart, 1997; Inkson, 2005; Parsons & Shills, 1962). More recently, management theorists have encountered contradictory results vis-Ć -vis the differences in managersā behaviour caused by specific social factors (cultural, ethics related and such like), economic circumstances (level of development, current economic situation and so on) and several other circumstances and preconditions, which directly or indirectly determine managersā behaviours (Furrer et al., 2010; House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004; Leslie et al., 2018; Ralston et al., 2014).
In addition, academics and experts have revealed the characteristics and patterns of relations between the behaviour of organizational stakeholders and the management of organizations, as well as the factors explaining these relations (Becker & McClintock, 1967; Glavas & Kelley, 2014). This line of research has exposed behaviour factors of individuals, groups and organizationsāsuch as beliefs, values, attitudes, intentions and so forthāthat are important in defining managersā behaviour (Petty & Cacioppo, 2018; Rokeach, 1968; Schwartz, 1992).
As the field of management has evolved, several academicsāsuch as Ajzen (2005), Fisher and Schwartz (2010) and Minton and Kahle (2014)āand ...