From the point at which a solo snare drum gives way to Bill Haley and His Cometsā rendition of āRock Around the Clockā, during the opening credits of Blackboard Jungle (Richard Brooks, USA, 1955), popular music has been a consistent aural component of film. However, despite the longstanding nature of this relationship, it is not a subject that has attracted much attention and, consequently, many facets of it remain unexplored. Donnelly adds weight to this view, whilst highlighting the need for further research when he observes, āIt is startling that there is so little written on a subject that is so popular as a consumer item and thus has a significant profileā (2015: 9).
The concept of popular music functions in film as a developmental process is one such overlooked aspect. Nearly forty years have passed since Williams first drew attention to this idea with the following appeal:
We need some working hypotheses ā āan evolution of the Language of Cinemaā for the soundtrackā¦ we should have precise descriptions of the soundtrack of selected musicals and non-musicalsā¦ these areas could best be attacked comparatively. (1981: 157ā158)
However, during the intervening decades, detailed working hypotheses of this type have not been forthcoming. Motivated by the continuing lack of engagement with Williamsā plea, what follows is an in-depth response which compares popular musicās functions in a variety of films to highlight a period vital to the evolution of the popular music soundtrack.
Timewise, central to the notion of development are the years spanning the release of Blackboard Jungle, and the emergence of rock ānā roll, to the demise of disco following the release of Saturday Night Fever. However, before beginning a detailed investigation of the reasons for the significance of this period, it is essential to define three of the key terms which comprise the conceptāpopular music, developmental process and music functionāas each requires clarification in the context of this topic.
Popular Music
The term popular music is problematic. It is resistant to an overriding, exact definition which is satisfactory. Shuker concurs with this view, stating āthe criteria for what counts as popular, and their application to specific musical styles and genres, are open to considerable debateā (2013: 5). Consequently, it would be futile to attempt to define the term in such a way.
Given this is the case, rather than struggle with constructing an all-encompassing meaning, a more useful alternative is to compile aspects, commonly attached to the term, which are relevant within the framework of the concept being addressed. As this relates to the association between popular music and film, popular music can be regarded as originating in the 1950s, specifically beginning with the inclusion of the aforementioned āRock Around the Clockā. This has previously been identified by Barron as āthe precise moment at which this relationship [between popular music and film] came into beingā (2003: 148).
But this assertion should not be interpreted as a claim that no form of popular music existed prior to this date. Evidently, the term popular music was employed before 1955. Shuker (2013: 5) tells us it was first seen in 1855, in William Chappleās Popular Music of Olden Times, and was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. Given this information, it may appear contradictory to rely upon Barronās statement that popular music did not appear in film until 1955, especially as much earlier examples exist, such as Jakie Rabinowitz (Al Jolson) singing āMy Mammyā in The Jazz Singer (Alan Crosland, USA, 1927), a song which, at that time, would have been identified as belonging to this genre.
However, such an argument fails to recognize what Shuker describes as popular musicās āshifting topographyā (2013: 6). Popular music should not be thought of as a consistent genre, but instead a fluid one in which the definitive and temporal parameters undergo constant modifications. Songs or tunes which were referred to as popular music by Chapple in 1855 would not be attached to the term today. As these earlier examples become excluded so the perceived date of origin of the genre is brought forward in time. This provides a partial vindication as to how Barron came to identify 1955 as marking the beginning of the relationship between popular music and film. However, it does not explain why Barron singled out āRock Around the Clockā as the key song at the start of this association. To support this assertion, it is necessary to consider key elements included within existing definitions of popular music.
One such element is popular musicās commercial nature, in that success, in part, is measured via record sales and airplay. It is therefore orientated to achieve these goals. Significantly, rock ānā roll coincided with two industrial innovations which were to boost sales of popular music: the 45 rpm single and the establishment of record charts as a measure of commercial success. The introduction of the single and its effect on the expansion of the influence of the charts represented a new beginning for music, in a commercial sense. This accounts for rock ānā rollās association with the start of this new era. Since āRock Around the Clockā was the first major rock ānā roll hit, in accordance with Barronās statement, it could also be regarded as the first popular music to be included in film.
Given its āshifting topographyā, this commonly held assumption that the birth of rock ānā roll denotes the genesis of popular music can only be made retrospectively, since, at the time, it would have been considered an extension of the genre. It was only when the seismic effects upon this genre had been fully appreciated that popular musicās beginnings became linked to āRock Around the Clockā. However, in terms of the relationship between popular music and film, the songās inclusion in Blackboard Jungle also marked a significant development at the time. The song had previously been released in 1954, but only enjoyed international chart success after it was incorporated into the film. At this point, the synergistic possibilities of film and rock ānā roll music were first realized. The coupling of a film and pre-recorded popular music, both of which were aimed primarily at a youth audience, an increasingly important demographic, allowed each to be exploited in the promotion of the other. Consequently, Blackboard Jungle took $5.2 million in US/Canadian box-office rentals, making it the sixteenth most successful film of the year, whilst āRock Around the Clockā achieved international chart success, reaching No. 1 in the US and UK charts. Barronās claim is therefore justified by the combination of the songās association with rock ānā rollās beginnings and its chart success as a consequence of its inclusion within a film.
Developmental Process
Having substantiated the reasoning behind the recognition of the presence of āRock Around the Clockā in Blackboard Jungle as representative of the beginning of popular music in film, a comparison to later examples also reveals popular musicās limitations at this point. This song is the only example included in the film and is only heard during the opening and closing credits, along with an orchestral version during a fight sequence. Moving forward in time to 1977, by contrast, popular music is present in abundance throughout Saturday Night Fever (John Badham, USA, 1977). In this film, pieces of music are performed by different artists and different versions of individual songs are included. In addition, music is included diegetically, non-diegetically and meta-diegetically, that is, both within and outside the world of the film, and within the imagination of the filmās characters. This greater variety, both in the array of pieces and the ways in which they are used, impacts upon the range of functions of the popular music in this film. But, clearly, it would be wrong to assume that all these advances, and their influence upon the expansion of functional abilities, were instantaneous. It was not a single jump from Blackboard Jungle to Saturday Night Fever. During the intervening period between the release of each of these films, other key examples were produced which exhibit individual innovations in the use of popular music in forms which are absent from their predecessors. To verify this premise of development, such examples need to be analyzed to identify important phases which make up this process.
Music Function
An understanding of the term music function can best be achieved by reference to film text. Jaws (Steven Spielberg, USA, 1975), with its iconic musical theme, provides appropriate examples of music functions, through the relationship between the filmās score and its other visual and aural elements. At various points when the theme is heard, including when Alex Kintner (Jeffrey Voorhees) is attacked by the shark, the audience is aware of the beast being there even though its image is not visible on the screen. This suggests some form of association between the musical theme and the shark. During these scenes it is the music, rather than the visual image which functions to denote the sharkās presence. Furthermore, this ability to act as a signifier is not limited merely to that of a presence but extends to a representation of the sharkās movements. Sipos describes this well: āThe ponderous Jaws theme music suggests a shark pushing inexorably forward, then speeding towards its preyā (2010: 236). This depiction, which is achieved by increasing the tempo of the music as the piece progresses, signifies the increased speed of movement of the shark as it closes in on its victim.
But this is not the lim...